The Progress of Ethnology

"Says Darius the King: – … He who was named Cambyses, the son of Cyrus of our race, he was here king before me. There was of that Cambyses a brother named Bartius; he was of the same father and mother as Cambyses. Cambyses slew this Bartius. When Cambyses slew that Bartius, the troubles of the state ceased which Bartius had excited. Then Cambyses proceeded to Egypt. When Cambyses had gone to Egypt, the state became heretical; then the lie became abounding in the land, both in Persia and in Media, and in the other provinces."

He then goes on to speak of the rebellions in his dominions after the death of Cambyses, of the Magian who declared himself king, and that no one dared to resist him. He continues:

"every one was standing obediently around the Magian, until I arrived. Then I abode in the worship of Ormuzd; Ormuzd brought help to me. On the 10th day of the month Bagayadish, I slew the Magian and the chief men who were his followers. By the grace of Ormuzd, I became king; Ormuzd granted me the sceptre."

He then says, he "established his race on the throne, as in the days of old," prohibited the sacrificial worship introduced by the Magian, and restored the old families to office, – all of which was accomplished by the aid of Ormuzd. The people of Susiana and Babylon then became rebellious. He slew the leader of the former.

"Says Darius the King: – Then I proceeded to Babylon against that Natitabirus, who was called Nabokhadrosser (Nebuchadnezzar). The forces of Natitabirus held the Tigris; there they had come and they had boats. Then I placed a detachment on rafts. I brought the enemy into difficulty; I assaulted the enemy's position. Ormuzd brought help to me; by the grace of Ormuzd, I succeeded in passing the Tigris. Then I entirely defeated the army of that Natitabirus. On the 27th day of the month of Atriyata, then it was that we thus fought."

Darius then continued his march to Babylon, where he was met by the army of Natitabirus; he gave him battle and defeated him, driving his army into the water. He then took Babylon. It would appear from what this monarch relates, that he had a pretty rebellious set of subjects, who took advantage of his absence at Babylon. The inscription continues.

"Says Darius the King: – whilst I was at Babylon, these are the countries that revolted against me; Persis, Susiana, Media, Assyria, Armenia, Parthia, Margiana, Sattagydia and Sacia.

He then gives the names of the rebellious leaders and of the officers sent to subjugate them; the forts, villages, or cities, where battles were fought; the day of the month when they took place, and the result, in every case, by the help of Ormuzd. One example will suffice. After speaking of the revolt of Armenia, the inscription continues.

"Says Darius the King: – Then Dadarses by name, an Armenian, one of my servants, him I sent to Armenia. I thus said to him: 'Greeting to thee, the rebel state that does not obey me, smite it.' Then Dadarses marched. When he reached Armenia, then the rebels having collected came before Dadarses arraying their battle … by name, a village of Armenia, there they engaged. Ormuzd brought help to me; by the grace of Ormuzd, my forces entirely defeated that rebel army. On the 8th of the month Thurawahara, then it was a battle was fought by them."

In this manner we have the whole history of the reign of Darius king of Persia, who filled the throne 550 B.C. And it may truly be said that no monument of remote antiquity which has been preserved to modern times, at all equals it in importance. The inscriptions of Egypt are far more ancient, but consist of fragments, which, excepting the tables of kings, do not throw much light on history. Nothing is more interesting in the details given by the Persian king of his successes, than his acknowledgment of an overruling power, a Supreme Being, who protected him and aided him in all his battles. From the closing part of this remarkable tablet, which consists of twenty paragraphs, we select the following.

"Says Darius the King: – This is what I have done. By the grace of Ormuzd have I achieved the performance of the whole. Thou whoever hereafter may peruse this tablet, let it be known to thee, that which has been done by me, that it has not been falsely related.

"Says Darius the King: – Ormuzd is my witness, that this record I have faithfully made of the performance of the whole.

"Says Darius the King: – By the grace of Ormuzd, there is much else that has been done by me that upon this tablet has not been inscribed… If thou publish this tablet to the world, Ormuzd shall be a friend to thee, and may thy offspring be numerous.

"Says Darius the King: – If thou shalt conceal this record, thou shalt not thyself be recorded; may Ormuzd be thy enemy, and mayest thou be childless.

"Says Darius the King: – As long as thou mayest behold this tablet and these figures, thou mayest not dishonor them; and if from injury thou shalt preserve them, may Ormuzd be a friend to thee, and may thy offspring be numerous, and mayest thou be long lived, and that which thou mayest do may Ormuzd bless for thee in after times."

The great inscription from which we have made these extracts, is sculptured in three languages, and in three different forms of the arrow-headed character, the particulars of which have been stated. There are a few imperfections and cracks in the stone which made certain words and sentences unintelligible; these will be corrected when the other two inscriptions are decyphered. In the midst of these records is a piece of sculpture in relief, representing Darius followed by two of his officers, with his foot upon a man, who raises his hands before him, and nine other figures representing the rebellious leaders whom he had severally conquered. They are connected by a rope around their necks and have their hands tied behind, and are probably portraits of the persons they represent. Beneath each is engraved his name, as in the extract given.

"This Natitabirus was an impostor: he thus declared, I am Nabokhadrosser, the son of Nabonidas; I am king of Babylon."

The discoveries of Professor Westergaard, to whom we are indebted for the key to the second or Median form of the arrow-headed character, require notice. This accomplished Orientalist, on his return from an archæological tour in India and Persia, under the patronage of the king of Denmark, brought with him, among other literary treasures, copies of a great number of inscriptions in the arrow-headed character. While in Persepolis he carefully examined all the inscriptions which those wonderful ruins still retain. Those which had already been published, he accurately compared with the original monuments, and the remainder he copied entire. This gentleman went thoroughly furnished with all the preparatory knowledge that could be gained in Europe to ensure success. He had shown himself by his publications to be an excellent Sanscrit scholar; besides which he had acquired as complete a knowledge of the Zend language as it is possible to do at present, and was well acquainted with all that had been effected in the way of decyphering the inscriptions. Having thus so greatly the advantage of his predecessors, Niebuhr, Ker Porter, and Rich, it is not to be wondered at that his transcripts are proportionably more accurate and complete.

It has long been known that all the inscriptions at Persepolis are triple, like those on the Behistun tablets, before described. Those of the first or simplest variety, have all been translated by Professor Lassen,[82 - Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes, 1844 '45.] to whom Professor Westergaard transmitted them. Accompanying his translations are critical and explanatory remarks, proving conclusively the correctness of his version. The inscriptions at and near Persepolis, relate to Xerxes. They do not possess the historical value that the tablets of his father do on the rocks of Behistun, but consist of praises of Ormuzd for blessings he had received, and of himself for the additions he made to the royal palace at Persepolis. The following is a translation of an inscription on the wall of an immense portal at Nakshi Regib, two miles from Persepolis.[83 - For inscription see Rich's Babylon and Persepolis, plate 24, and page 254.]

"Ormuzd (is) the great God. He created this earth; he created the heavens; he created mortals; he created the fortune of mortals. He made king Xerxes the only king of many, the only emperor of many.

"I Xerxes (am) the great king, the king of kings, the king of realms inhabited by many nations; the sustainer, the author of this great land; the son of king Darius, the Achæmenide.

"I (am) the noble Xerxes, the great king. By the will of Ormuzd, I have built this portal to be entered by the people. Let the Persians abide, let them congregate under this portal, and in this palace – the palace which my father built for abiding in. By the will of Ormuzd we built them.

"I (am) the noble king Xerxes. Protect me O Ormuzd; and also this kingdom, and this my palace, and my father's palace protect, O admirable Ormuzd."

No inscriptions have yet been found in Persia of Artaxerxes, the first son of Xerxes. A vase, however, was discovered at Venice by Sir J.G. Wilkinson, bearing an inscription in hieroglyphics, and in the three species of arrow-headed characters so common in Persia. This vase and its inscriptions have been examined by M. Letronne and M. Longpérier, who do not hesitate to ascribe it to Artaxerxes the first, or Longimanus, whose names and titles have been made out both in the hieroglyphics and cuneiform characters.[84 - Revue Archæologique. October, 1844.]

An inscription of great historical interest of Artaxerxes the third, has been found at Persepolis.[85 - Westergaard in Mém. de la Socié. Royale des Antiq. du Nord, p. 419. Ibid. p. 423.] It is in only one species of the Achæmenian writing, and is noticed by Prof. Westergaard as exhibiting "a most remarkable change and decay which the language must have undergone in the interval between the reigns of Xerxes and this monarch." In a philological point of view, this fact is interesting as showing so early a decline of the Persian language.

But the most important part of this inscription consists of the genealogy of Artaxerxes the third, from Arsama, the Greek Arsames, the father of Hystaspes, completely agreeing with that given by Grecian historians. In this as well as in all the other inscriptions thus far decyphered, Ormuzd is invariably invoked; he is called upon to aid them, and the several sovereigns acknowledge their gratitude to him as to an all-protecting Providence for the blessings received.

Nineveh. We have received from M. Mohl, of Paris, an account of the researches of MM. Botta and Flandin,[86 - Lettres de M. Botta sur les découvertes à Khorsabad, près de Ninive; publiées par M.J. Mohl.] on or near the site of ancient Nineveh.

This volume contains letters from M. Botta, giving the details of his discoveries, accompanied by fifty-five plates of sculptures, statues, and inscriptions. He penetrated into the interior of a large mound, where he found a series of halls and chambers, the walls of which were covered with paintings and relievos representing historical events, and scenes illustrating the manners and customs of the Assyrians. The drawings and sculptures exhibit a higher state of art than the monuments of Egypt. The figures are remarkably well drawn, both as it regards the anatomy and the costumes. The men appear to be more athletic than the Egyptians – they wear long hair combed smooth over the top of the head, and curled behind. The beard is also long and always curled. Their dresses are exceedingly rich and profuse in ornaments and trimmings. Ear-rings, bracelets, and armlets, of various forms and elaborately wrought, are seen on most of the figures both of the men and women. The discoveries made by M. Botta have induced others to explore the ground in that vicinity. An English traveller, Mr. Layard, has recently opened a mound many times larger than that excavated by the French. "It contains the remains of a palace, a part of which, like that at Khorsabad, appears to have been burnt. There is a vast series of chambers, all built with marble, and covered with sculptures and inscriptions. The inscriptions are in the cuneiform character, of the class usually termed Babylonian. It is possible that this edifice was built at an epoch prior to the overthrow of the Assyrian Empire by the Medes and Babylonians under Cyaxares. Many of the sculptures discovered by Mr. Layard are, even in the smallest details, as sharp and fresh as though they had been chiselled yesterday. Among them is a pair of winged lions with human heads, about twelve feet high. They form the entrance to a temple. The execution of these figures is admirable, and gives the highest idea of the knowledge and civilization of the Assyrians. There are many monsters of this kind, lions and bulls. The other reliefs consist of various divinities, some with eagles' heads – others entirely human but winged – with battle-pieces and sieges."[87 - London Times, June, 1846. Two interesting letters from Mr. Layard, dated August 12, 1846, to Mr. Kellogg, of Cincinnati, were read before the American Ethnological Society, at its meeting in February, giving further accounts of his discoveries.]

Other letters from Mr. Layard of a later date than that just mentioned, announce new discoveries. "Another mine has been opened at Nimroud; and every stroke of the pick-axe brings new wonders to light." Old Nineveh, whose very existence had become little better than a vague historic dream, is astonishing the world by her buildings her sculptures, and her many thousands of inscriptions, which have been brought to light by the explorations of Mr. Layard.[88 - See London Athenæum, Oct. 10, 1846, a letter from Constantinople dated Sept. 10.] "He has opened fourteen chambers and uncovered two hundred and fifty sculptured slabs. The grand entrance previously described led him into a hall above two hundred and fifty feet long and thirty broad – entirely built of slabs of marble covered with sculptures. The side walls are ornamented with bas-reliefs of the highest interest – battles, sieges, lion-hunts, &c.; many of them in the finest state of preservation, and all executed with extraordinary spirit. They afford a complete history of the military art of the Assyrians; and prove their intimate knowledge of many of those machines of war, whose invention is attributed to the Greeks and Romans – such as the battering ram, the tower moving on wheels, the catapult, &c. Nothing can exceed the beauty and elegance of the forms of various arms, swords, daggers, bows, spears, &c. In this great hall are several entrances, each formed by winged lions, or winged bulls.[89 - The prophet Daniel in his vision of four beasts says, "The first was like a lion, and had eagles' wings; I beheld till the wings thereof were plucked, and it was lifted up from the earth, and made stand upon the feet as a man." Daniel, ch. VII. v. 4. The resemblance between the animal of Daniel's vision and those recently discovered at Nineveh is striking.] These lead to other chambers; which again branch off into a hundred ramifications. Every chamber is built of marble slabs covered with sculptures or inscriptions." The excavations thus far only extend to one corner of a great mound, the largest on the plain, measuring about one thousand eight hundred feet by nine hundred. The wonders that may be brought to light from a more complete survey of this vast heap of ruins, will be looked forward to with intense interest.

All are familiar with the accounts of the building of this city by Asshur, (whence the name Assyria), and of the first empire under Nimrod. In this short record we have the first traces of political institutions and of great cities. They burst upon us, and as suddenly disappear from the world's history for more than a thousand years. A learned author of the last century[90 - Richardson in the Preface to his Persian Dictionary.] has endeavored to throw distrust on all that the Greek writers have written about these countries, because in the Persian historians he could not recognise the great Cyrus and other prominent characters which fill important places in the Grecian annals. But the revelations already made through the arrow-headed inscriptions must remove these doubts, as they substantiate in a remarkable degree the assertions of the Greek writers. The observations of a learned Orientalist are so well adapted to this subject that I cannot forbear quoting them. "The formation of mighty and civilized states being admitted even by our strictest chronologers to have taken place at least twenty-five centuries before our era, it can but appear extraordinary, even after taking into account violent revolutions, that of so multitudinous and great existences, only such scanty documents have come down to us. But, strange to say, whenever a testimony has escaped the destruction of time, instead of being greeted with a benevolent though discerning curiosity, the unexpected stranger is approached with mistrustful scrutiny, his voice is stifled with severe rebuke, his credentials discarded with scorn, and by a predetermined and stubborn condemnation, resuscitating antiquity is repelled into the tomb of oblivion."[91 - Preface to the "Dabistan" published by the Oriental Trans. Fund: – by A. Troyer. Vol. I. p. 30.]

A journey of much interest was undertaken by Dr. Robert in 18_3, who was directed by the French government to continue, in the west of the Himalaya range and the high region adjacent, the geographical, physical, and ethnographical observations which had been begun by M. Jaquemont. The latest accounts from this intrepid traveller left him in the inaccessible valleys of Chinese Tartary, from whence it was his intention to pass through Turkestan, for the purpose of entering China on the north.[92 - Annales des Voyages, April, 1845, p. 58.]

In the same distant region we hear of the journeys of H.R.H. Prince Waldemar, of Prussia (cousin to the king). "Consulting only his ardor for science, and burthened with the usual load carried by a traveller on foot, he scaled the lofty Himmalayah, crossed the frontier of the Celestial Empire, and reached the table-land of Thibet."[93 - Ld. Colchester's Address, Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, 1846.] The prince has already transmitted a large collection of objects of natural history, many of which are new, to Berlin. It is his intention to return to Europe by way of Affghanistan, Persia, and Asia Minor.

The following list embraces the late works on Assyria and Persia, as well as those relating to the arrow-head inscriptions.

The Persian Cuneiform Inscriptions at Behistun, decyphered and translated; with a Memoir on Persian cuneiform inscriptions in general, and on that of Behistun in particular, by Major H.C. Rawlinson, 8vo., in the journal of the Royal Asiatic Society. Vol. 10. London, 1846.

On the Decyphering of the second Achæmenian or Median species of Arrow-headed Writing; by N.L. Westergaard, 8vo., in the Mémoires de la Société Royale des Antiquaires du Nord. Copenhagen, 1844.

Lettres de M. Botta sur les Découvertes à Khorsabad, près de Ninive, publiées par M.J. Mohl, 8vo., with 56 plates. Paris, 1845.

Essai sur la Numismatique des Satrapies et de la Phénicie, sous les rois Achæmenides, par H. de Luynes, 4to. Paris, 1846.

The Manual, Formation and early Origin of the Hebrew letters and points, demonstrated and explained; also an Elucidation of the so-called Arrow-headed or Cuneiform characters. 8vo. London, 1847.

Essai de Déchiffrement de l'Écriture Assyrienne pour servir à l'explication du Monument de Khorsabad. Par J. Löwenstern. 8vo. Paris, 1846.

Die Grabscrift des Darius zu Nakschi Rustum erläutert. Von F. Hitzig. Zurich, 8vo. 1846.

Remarks on the Wedge Inscription recently discovered on the upper Euphrates by the Prussian engineer, Capt. Von Mülbach. Being a commentary on certain fundamental principles in the art of decyphering the "cuneatic" characters of the ancient Assyrians, by G.F. Grotefend. 8vo. In the papers of the Syro-Egyptian Society. Vol. I. London, 1845.

Voyage en Perse. de MM. Eugene Flandin et P. Coste. Recueil d'Architecture ancienne, Bas reliefs, inscriptions cuneiformes et Pehlvis, plans topographiques et vues pittoresques. Folio. 250 plates and text.

This magnificent work, the result of an expedition sent out by order of the French government, under the directions of the Institute, and now published by a commission of savans, consisting of Messrs Burnouf, Le Bas, and Leclerc, is in the course of publication. It will unquestionably be the most complete work ever published on this interesting country and will include the antiquities of Babylon and Nineveh.

G.F. Grotefend, Neue Beiträge zur Erläuterung der Persopolitanischen Keilschrift, nebst einem Anhange über die Vollkommenheit der ersten Art-derselben. Hanover, 1837.

G.F. Grotefend, Neue Beiträge zur Erläuterung der Babylonischen Keilschrift, nebst einem Anhange über die Beschaffensheit des ältesten Schriftdruck. Hanover, 1840.

The valuable Oriental Journal edited by Prof. Lassen, entitled "Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes," contains many papers of great interest on these subjects.

Siberia. To the love of science which the enlightened Emperor of Russia, has always manifested, we are indebted for an expedition, the most successful which has yet been undertaken for the exploration of the northern and eastern parts of Siberia. The results of this extensive exploration of a region not before examined by scientific men, are of the greatest interest to science, and have earned for its distinguished and undaunted leader, Prof. Von Middendorff, the applause of the savans of Europe. Not having seen any detailed account of this journey, I am indebted to Sir R. Murchison for some particulars of its results.[94 - Address to the British Association for the Advancement of Science, at its meeting, September, 1846.]

The expedition traversed the whole extent of Siberia, from east to west, and from south to north, even to the extreme northern headland of Taimyr. "Undaunted by the severe privations he had undergone in obtaining his knowledge of the far northern lands of Siberia, he next undertook the not less arduous task of traversing the whole of that vast continent to the Shantar Isles, at its southeastern extremity, and thence to return to Nertchinsk, along the Chinese frontier. His journey through thickly-wooded rocks, deep morasses and over swollen rivers, was so successfully accomplished, that the stores he has brought back to St. Petersburgh, will fully lay open the Fauna and Flora of a region never previously explored by a man of science."

"Floating down the sea of Okotsk from Udskoi in frail canoes, M. Middendorff and his friends, braving shoals of floating ice and perpetual rains, reached Nitka on the great Shantar island. The wild regions which were traversed, in many parts could only be threaded by following the tracks formed by bears beneath the dense matting of underwood and birch trees" In his return journey, he examined the frontier line of China, a tract never explored even by a Cossack, and ascertained that between the Udskoi of the Russians and the mouth of the Amur, there is a considerable tract quite independent both of Russia and China, and occupied by a people called Guilaiques, who pay no tribute to either Emperor.

In addition to the several arduous journeys performed by this intrepid traveller and his companions, many questions hitherto unsolved were investigated and much new light added to our previous knowledge on these respective points. One was the real state of the question of the frozen subsoil of Siberia. "By placing thermometers at various depths in the shaft at Yakutsk, he has found that at its bottom, or at 382 feet below the surface, the cold is 2° 4" Réaumur, and that it is probable the frozen subsoil reaches to the great depth of about 600 feet! Notwithstanding this extraordinary phenomenon, the lateral extent of which has still to be determined, it appears that the culture of rye succeeds perfectly under favorable local conditions in those regions, and that the crops of grain are more abundant than in Livonia!" M. Middendorff has also thrown new light on the boreal range of vegetation. He has ascertained "that whilst rye, turnips, beets, and potatoes grow on the Yenisei to latitude 61° 40', indigenous plants, requiring less warmth, flourish much farther north, and that even trees with vertical stems reach to about 72° north latitude, in that parallel of longitude!" This fact will show that geographers can no longer mark the limit of vegetation by a rectilinear zone, but must accommodate such line to climatological and local conditions.