Familiar Talks on Science: World-Building and Life; Earth, Air and Water.

The great chalk cliffs that are found on the coasts of the English channel are the work of a sea animal microscopic in size. At one time it was a question among scientists how these chalk cliffs were formed, but when the microscope was invented this mystery, as well as many others, was solved. The chemical components of chalk are precisely the same as those of limestone. The microscope shows that chalk is almost wholly a product of very small organized shells. The animals who are the architects of the chalk cliffs are called "foraminifera" – bearing shells perforated with little holes. The chief difference between chalk and limestone seems to be in the size of the shells of which they are respectively made up and in the manner of the bonding of these shells together. The shells in a lump of chalk are held much more loosely than those in a lump of limestone. These intrepid workers are still actively changing the structure of the bottoms of seas and oceans, and forming new islands, which in turn become the substructure that supports new life, animal and vegetable. And when we consider the great part performed by these microscopic architects and builders it is not a misnomer to speak of the building of a world.

CHAPTER III

COAL

Some time, long ago, some man made the discovery that what we now call coal would burn and produce light and warmth. Who he was or how long ago he lived we do not know, but as all earthly things have a beginning, we know that such a man did live and that the discovery that coal would burn was made. Coal, in the sense that we use the word here, is not mentioned in the Scriptures. According to some authorities, coal was used in England as early as the ninth century. It is recorded that in 1259 King Henry III. granted a privilege to certain parties to mine coal at Newcastle. It is further stated that seven years after this time coal became an article of export. In 1306 coal was so generally used in London that a petition was sent to parliament to have the use of it suppressed on the ground that it was a nuisance. Coal was used in Belgium, however, about 1200. There is a tradition that a blacksmith first used it in Liège as fuel. It was first used for manufacturing purposes about 1713.

Coal is found laid down in great veins, varying in thickness, in various parts of the world in the upper strata of the Paleozoic period. The age in which it was formed is called by geologists the Carboniferous (coal-bearing) age.

Before going on to account for the deposits of coal, let us stop a moment and consider what it is. Chemists tell us that coal is chiefly constructed of carbon, compounded with oxygen, hydrogen, and nitrogen. There are many varieties, but all may be classified under two general headings – bituminous and anthracite. Bituminous coal contains a large amount of a tarry substance, a kind of mineral pitch or bitumen, which burns with a brilliant flame and a black sooty smoke, exceedingly rich in carbon. Anthracite coal is hard and stone-like in its texture, burning with scarcely any flame and no smoke. It produces a fire of intense heat when it is once ignited. There is another form of coal called cannel coal, which is a corruption of "candle coal," so called because a piece of this kind of coal when ignited will burn like a match or pine knot and give light like a candle. This is the richest of all the coal deposits in gases that are set free by heat, and for this reason is extensively used in the manufacture of what is commonly called coal gas. England produces a large amount of cannel coal, as well as another variety of bituminous coal, which latter, however, does not burn with such a black smoke as the coal found in the Ohio valley and the Western States of America. East of the Alleghany Mountains there is a region of anthracite coal that is very extensively worked and finds great favor in all parts of the country as fuel for domestic heating, especially on account of its great cleanliness.

All of the coal beds have a common origin, and the difference in the quality of coal found in different parts of the country is due to many circumstances, some of which have never been explained. There is indisputable proof, however, that all coal beds are of vegetable origin. Geologists tell us that these coal beds were formed during an age before the earth had cooled down to the temperature that it has at the present time – an age when vegetation was forced by the internal heat of the earth instead of having to receive all its warmth from the sun's rays as we do now. Some of our readers are familiar with what is commonly termed a hotbed. A hotbed is made by putting soil on top of substances that will ferment and create heat underneath the soil. This heat from beneath will force vegetation and cause a much larger growth than there will be if left to the sun's rays alone. During the carboniferous age the earth was a great hotbed.

The fossils of trees and plants, as well as reptiles, that we find in the great coal measures of the world, show that they were of large tropical growth, and this is shown not only in the temperate zone, but in the zone farther north. For ages and ages this rank growth of vegetation grew up and fell down until a great layer of vegetable matter was formed, which at a later time was covered over by other stratifications of earth material, so that these great layers of vegetable formation were hermetically sealed and pressed down by an enormous weight that increased as time went on. The formation of coal may be studied even at this day (for it is now going on) by visiting and examining the great peat beds that are found in various parts of the world. It is well known that peat is used as a fuel by many people, especially the peasantry of the old countries. If peat is pressed to a sufficient degree of hardness it burns in a manner not unlike some forms of coal. Peat is a vegetable formation and has been formed by the rank growth of various kinds of vegetation in swampy places. Of course, it lacks the purity of the coal that was formed during the carboniferous age, because of the much slower growth of vegetation now than during that time, and the opportunity that peat bogs offer for an intermixture of earthy with the vegetable matter. The fact that we find the imprint of trees and ferns and other vegetable growth of tropical varieties, as well as the fossils of reptiles, imbedded in the coal measures, proves that at one time this stratum was at the land surface of the earth. We also find that all of the formations of the Secondary and Tertiary periods are on top of the coal – and this shows that after the age of rank vegetable growth there was a sinking of the earth in many places far down into the ocean – so that vast layers of rock formed on top of these beds of vegetable matter. In England great chalk beds crop out in cliffs on the southern coast, and, as we have seen, these chalk rocks are largely made up of the shells of marine animals. London stands on a chalk bed, from six hundred to eight hundred feet thick. Indeed, England has been poetically called Albion, White-land, from this appearance of her coast.

All of the great chalk beds were formed ages after the coal beds, as the latter are found in the upper strata of the Paleozoic period.

A study of these strata will show that there are many layers of coal strata varying in thickness and separated by layers of shale and sandstone. How the shale and sandstone layers are formed will be the subject of a future chapter.

From the position that the coal measures occupy, being entirely under the Secondary and Tertiary formations, it will be observed that they are very old. If we should examine a piece of ordinary bituminous coal we should find that there are lines of cleavage in it parallel to each other, and that it is an easy matter to separate the lump on these lines. If we examine the outcrop of a coal bed we will find that these lines of cleavage are horizontal. This indicates that the great bulk of vegetable matter of which the coal formation is made up has been subjected to tremendous pressure during a long period of time. If we further examine the structure of a body of coal we find the impressions of limbs and branches as well as the leaves of trees and various kinds of plants. We shall further find that these impressions lie in a plant in the same direction as the line of cleavage. This is a point to be remembered, as it helps to explain the nature and structure of other formations than those of coal. Not only are leaves and branches of vegetable matter found, but fossils of reptiles, such as live on the land. Sometimes there is found the fossil of a great tree trunk standing in an erect position, with its roots running down into the rock below the coal bed, while the trunk extends upward entirely through the coal and high up into the other strata. All of these facts lead us to the firm conclusion that when the trees were grown that formed these beds they were above the surface of the ocean. This, taken in connection with the fact that the vegetable fossils that are found indicate a tropical growth of great size, drives us to the conclusion that the climate at the time these coal measures were formed was much warmer than it is now.

As already remarked, this extra warmth came from the earth itself before it had cooled down to its present temperature, rather than from the heat of the sun. There is nothing inconsistent in the thought that the sun may have been warmer in a former age than now. We may conceive that the earliest coal formations took place when the land stood above the surface of the water, and that the conditions were favorable for a rapid and luxuriant growth of vegetation; after this had gone on for a very long period of time, by some convulsion of nature the land surface was submerged under the ocean, when other mineral substances were deposited on top of this layer of vegetable growth, which hardened into a rock formation. At a later period the earth was again elevated above the surface of the water and the same process of growth and decay was repeated. These oscillations of the earth up and down occurred at enormously long intervals, until all of the various coal strata with their intermediate formations were completed. After this we must suppose that the whole was submerged to a great depth and for a very long period of time, because of the great number and various kinds of rock formations laid down by water that lie on top of the coal measures. This tremendous weight, as it was gradually builded up, subjected these vegetable strata to an inconceivable pressure. In some places this pressure was much greater than in others, which undoubtedly is one of the reasons why we find such differences in the structure and quality of coal. There were no doubt many other reasons for differences, one of them being the character of the vegetable growth out of which they were formed. Again, in some parts of the world these coal strata may have been subjected to a considerable degree of heat, which would change the structure of the formation, and in some cases drive off the volatile gases. One can easily imagine that heat was thus a factor in the formation of what is known as anthracite coal, so much less gaseous than the bituminous kinds. The anthracite beds seem to be denser and of a more homogeneous character. The lines of cleavage are not as prominent, but there are the same evidences of vegetable origin that we find in the bituminous formations.

It will be seen from what has gone before that coal was first wood. But wood is a product of sunshine. Thus the sun was the architect and builder of the trees and plants that were finally hermetically sealed under the great earth strata. The sun gathered up the material and set the forces in play which made the chemical combinations of the various elements in nature that enter into vegetable growth.

After the lapse of untold ages of time these great beds of stored-up sun-energy were discovered by man and their contents are dragged out to the earth's surface, to warm our houses, to drive the machinery of our factories, to send the locomotives flying across the continents and the steamships over the oceans. So important has this article become that if any one nation could control the output it would be able to paralyze all the navies and the manufacturing of the world.

If the coal of the world should become exhausted we should be confronted with a great problem. Fortunately for us, this is a problem that will have to be solved by the people of some future age, as the growth of wood will scarcely keep pace with the consumption of fuel. By that time the genius of man will have devised an economical means of storing the energy of the sunbeams directly for purposes of heat, light, and power.

CHAPTER IV

SLATE AND SHALE

Slate is one of the great commercial products of the world. As far back as the year 1877 the output of slate was not less than 1,000,000 tons per annum. The chief use to which slate is put is for covering buildings, and for this purpose it is better than any other known material. It is also used in the construction of billiard tables and for writing-slates; these latter uses are very insignificant as compared to its use in architecture. Slate, like building-stone and limestone, is quarried from the earth's crust and is found in the strata close above the Metamorphic rocks, near the beginning of what is called the Primary, or Paleozoic period. As compared with the coal formations it is very, very old.

There are different substances called slate that are not slate in the scientific use of that word. In general all stone formations are called slates that split up into thin layers. But the true slate is a special material which is formed by special processes of nature. The difference between slate and shale, for instance, is not one of ingredients, but of the process by which the ingredients are put together. All of the sedimentary rocks are formed by a deposit of sediment from the water on the bottom of the ocean. At one period the floods have brought down a certain kind of material in greater profusion than at others, and this is deposited in thin layers, and as it hardens there will be seams in it and the stratifications will be differently colored, the color depending upon the deposit at any particular time.

A bed of shale, like a bed of coal, has lines of cleavage in it, and if it is examined under a microscope it will be found that the sedimentary particles, like the twigs and leaves in the coal veins, lie with their longest dimensions in line with the plane of cleavage. Shale in color looks like slate, and an analysis of the material of which it is formed shows that shale and slate are both made from the same. There is, however, a structural difference between the two which is very peculiar and very interesting. The slate is ordinarily a denser material and the lines of cleavage are often at right angles with those that we find in ordinary shale.

A slab of shale will be of a uniform color on any one line of cleavage. The color may change at the next line, and generally does, to a slight extent. It is easy to see, then, if we could change the lines of cleavage in the shale, so as to run at right angles with their present lines, the face of a slab would show bands of different colors or shadings, such as we often see in slate. If you take a piece of clay that has been thoroughly mixed, and subject it to a very great pressure, and then examine the piece that has been submitted to pressure under a microscope and compare it with a piece of the clay after it has been thoroughly mixed, but has not been submitted to pressure, you will find that the two are very different in structure. The pressed clay will show that the particles of which it is made up have all turned, so that their longest dimensions are in a line at right angles with the direction of pressure. Here is an interesting fact that we must remember. And it is in this that we find the reason for the structural difference between shale and slate. The lines of cleavage in shale are not formed necessarily by pressure, but because in the disposition of the material of which it was formed the particles naturally laid themselves down so that their longest dimensions were on a horizontal line.

Ages after, when other rock and other formations had been laid down on top of the bed of deposited mud, the upheavals of the earth have so changed the lines of pressure upon this material and the pressure is so great that a rearrangement of the particles of which the slate is made up has taken place, so that their longest dimensions now are in a direction that crosses the stratifications as originally laid down.

The effect of this is twofold. First, the material is compressed into a denser, closer form, and then, the lines of cleavage are changed, or to express it in more common language, the grain has been changed. So that when it splits up it runs crosswise of the original layers as the water deposited them, and this produces the different shadings so often seen in different slate. Shale splits in line with its layers; slate splits across that line.

Let us go back a moment to our experiment with the lump of clay. If we examined the mixture before submitted to pressure we should find that the oblong particles of which it was made up would stand in all directions, hit or miss, and if we should dry this lump of clay it would have no special lines of cleavage. But the moment we have submitted it to a certain amount of pressure we find that lines of cleavage have been established, and that the particles have been rearranged so that their longest dimensions are all in one direction, which coincides with the cleavage lines. If we should now take this same piece of clay and subject it to a pressure at right angles to that of the first experiment we should find that the lines of cleavage had also changed and that the particles had all been rearranged. Apply the principle to the formation of slate, and we can understand how it happens that what we call the grain runs crosswise of the deposits that were made at different times. It is not a chemical, but purely a mechanical difference. Or, to express it differently – the difference is a structural one produced by mechanical causes.

The origin of cleavage in slate has been the subject of much speculation and investigation, but like many other problems it was solved through the invention and application of the microscope. Thin layers of slate have been made, the same as with limestone and chalk, so thin that the light would readily pass through it and that an examination of the particles could be readily made, showing their arrangement under varied conditions. Science is indebted to the microscope for the solution of very many problems that for ages before had puzzled philosophers.

CHAPTER V

SALT

It may seem curious to the reader that we should care to discuss a subject seemingly so simple as common salt. But it is a very usual thing for us to live and move in the presence of things that are very common to our everyday experience, and yet know scarcely anything about them, beyond the fact that they in some way serve our purpose.

Salt is one of the commonest articles used in the preparation of our food. It has been questioned by some people whether salt was a real necessity as an animal food, or whether the taste for it is merely an acquired one. All peoples in all ages seem to have used salt, and reference to it is made in the earliest histories. Travelers tell us that savage tribes, wherever they exist, are as much addicted to the use of salt as civilized people. One of the early African travelers, Mungo Park, tells us that the children of central Africa will suck a piece of rock salt with the same avidity and seeming satisfaction as the ordinary civilized child will a lump of sugar.

All animals seem to require salt, and it is claimed by those who have tried the experiment that after one has refrained from the use of salt for a certain length of time the craving for it becomes exceedingly painful. It is most likely that the taste for salt is a natural craving. In any event, whether it is a natural or an artificial taste, it has become an article of the greatest importance in the preparation of food, as well as on account of its use in the arts. Salt is a compound of chlorine and sodium. In chemical language it is called sodium chloride. The symbol is NaCl, which means that a molecule of salt is composed of one atom of sodium and one of chlorine. Chlorine is an exceedingly poisonous gas.

Formerly the chemist when he wished to obtain sodium extracted it from common salt and discharged the chlorine gas into the air. It was found that in establishments where the manufacture of sodium was conducted on a large scale the destructive properties of the chlorine discharged into the air was such that all vegetation was killed for some distance around the manufactory. This came to be such a nuisance that the manufacturers were either compelled to stop business or in some way take care of the chlorine. This is done at the present day by uniting the chlorine gas with common lime, forming a chloride of lime, which is used for bleaching and purifying purposes.

Salt is found in great quantities as a natural product under the name of rock salt. It is found in some parts of the world in great veins over 100 feet in thickness. In some cases the rock salt is mined, when it has to be purified for commercial purposes. The common mode of obtaining salt, however, is by pumping the solution from these great beds where it is mingled with water – salt water; the water is then evaporated, and when it reaches a certain stage of evaporation the salt crystallizes and falls to the bottom.

Different substances crystallize in different forms. The crystallization of water when it freezes, as we shall see hereafter, arranges its molecules in such a form as to make a lump of ice of given dimensions lighter than the same dimensions of water would be. Salt in crystallizing does not follow the same law; the salt crystal is in the shape of a cube and is denser in its crystalline form than in solution, hence it is heavier and falls to the bottom.

It is said that there is a deposit of rock salt in Galicia, Austria, covering an area of 10,000 square miles. There are also very large deposits in England, the mining of which has become a great industry. There are also great beds of salt in various parts of the United States, notably near Syracuse, N. Y., where large salt deposits were exposed in an old river bed formed in preglacial times. The common mode of preparing salt for domestic purposes is by the process of evaporation from brine that has been pumped from salt wells. The quality of the salt is determined largely by the temperature at the time of evaporating the water from it. Ordinary coarse salt, such as is used for preserving meat or fish, is made at a temperature of about 110 degrees; what is known as common salt is made at a temperature of about 175 degrees; while common fine or table salt is made at a temperature of 220 degrees. Thus it will be seen that the process of granulation with reference to its fineness is determined by the rapidity of evaporation. Salt is one of the principal agents in preserving all kinds of meats against putrefaction. It will also preserve wood against dry rot. Vessel builders make use of this fact to preserve the timbers used in the construction of the vessels.

Salt at the present day is very cheap, but at the beginning of the present century it was worth from $60 to $70 per ton. The methods of decomposing salt to obtain its constituents, which are used in various other compounds, are very simple to-day as compared with the processes that prevailed in the days before the advent of electricity in large volume, such as is produced by the power of Niagara Falls. It is curious to note that a substance so useful and so harmless as common salt should be made out of two such refractory and dangerous elements as chlorine and sodium. Both of these elements, standing by themselves, seem to be out of harmony with nature, but when combined there are few substances that serve a better purpose.

These great salt beds that are found to exist in England and America and other parts of the world were undoubtedly deposited from the water of the ocean at some stage in the formation of the earth's crust. It is well known that sea water is exceedingly saline; 300 gallons of sea water will produce a bushel of salt. Undoubtedly beds of salt are also formed by inland lakes, such as the Great Salt Lake in Utah. Only about 2.7 per cent. of ocean water is salt, while the water of the Great Salt Lake of Utah contains about 17 per cent. When there is so much salt in water that it is called a saturated solution, salt crystals will form and drop to the bottom, which process will in time build up under a large body of salt water a great bed of rock salt.

The water in all rivers and springs contains salt to a certain degree, and where it runs into a basin like that of a lake with no outlet, through the process of evaporation pure water is being constantly carried off, leaving the salt behind. It is easy to see that if this process is kept up long enough the water will become in time a saturated solution, when crystallization sets in and precipitation follows, accounting for the deposits of rock salt.

AIR

CHAPTER VI

THE ATMOSPHERE

Meteorology is a science that at one time included astronomy, but now it is restricted to the weather, seasons, and all phenomena that are manifested in the atmosphere in its relation to heat, electricity, and moisture, as well as the laws that govern the ever-varying conditions of the circumambient air of our globe. The air is made up chiefly of oxygen and nitrogen, in the proportions of about twenty-one parts of oxygen and seventy-nine parts nitrogen by volume, and by weight about twenty-three parts oxygen and seventy-seven of nitrogen. These gases exist in the air as free gases and not chemically combined. The air is simply a mixture of these two gases.

There is a difference between a mixture and a compound. In a mixture there is no chemical change in the molecules of the substances mixed. In a compound there has been a rearrangement of the atoms, new molecules are formed, and a new substance is the result.

About 99-1/2 per cent. of air is oxygen and nitrogen and one-half per cent. is chiefly carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide is a product of combustion, decay, and animal exhalation. It is poison to the animal, but food for the vegetable. However, the proportion in the air is so small that its baneful influence upon animal life is reduced to a minimum. The nitrogen is an inert, odorless gas, and its use in the air seems to be to dilute it, so that man and animals can breathe it. If all the nitrogen were extracted from the air and only the oxygen left to breathe, all animal life would be stimulated to death in a short time. The presence of the nitrogen prevents too much oxygen from being taken into the system at once. I suppose men and animals might have been so organized that they could breathe pure oxygen without being hurt, but they were not, for some reason, made that way.

Air contains more or less moisture in the form of vapor; this subject, however, will be discussed more fully under the head of evaporation. The air at sea-level weighs fifteen pounds to the square inch, and if the whole envelope of air were homogeneous – the same in character – it would reach only about five miles high. But as it becomes gradually rarefied as we ascend, it probably extends in a very thin state to a height of eighty or ninety miles; at least, at that height we should find a more perfect vacuum than can be produced by artificial means. The weight of all the air on the globe would be 11-2/3 trillion pounds if no deduction had to be made for space filled by mountains and land above sea-level. As it is, the whole bulk weighs something less than the above figures.

As we have said, the air envelopes the globe to a height at sea-level of eighty or ninety miles, gradually thinning out into the ether that fills all interstellar space. We live and move on the bottom of a great ocean of air. The birds fly in it just as the fish swim in the ocean of water. Both are transparent and both have weight. Water in the condensed state is heavier than the air and will seek the lowest places, but when vaporized, as in the process of evaporation, it is lighter than air and floats upward. In the vapor state it is transparent like steam. If you study a steam jet you will notice that for a short distance after it issues from the boiler it is transparent, but soon it condenses into cloud.

If we could see inside of a boiler in which steam had been generated, all the space not occupied with water would seem to be vacant, since steam before it is condensed is as transparent as the air. We will, however, speak of this subject more fully under the head of evaporation and cloud formation. It is not enough that we have the air in which we live and move, with all of its properties, as we have described: something more is needed which is absolutely essential both to animal and vegetable life – and this essential is motion. If the air remained perfectly still with no lateral movement or upward and downward currents of any kind, we should have a perfectly constant condition of things subjected only to such gradual changes as the advancing and receding seasons would produce owing to the change in the angle of the sun's rays. No cloud would ever form, no rain would ever fall, and no wind would ever blow. It is of the highest importance not only that the wind shall blow, but that comparatively sudden changes of temperature take place in the atmosphere, in order that vegetation as well as animal life may exist upon the surface of the globe. The only place where animal life could exist would be in the great bodies of water, and it is even doubtful if water could remain habitable unless there were means provided for constant circulation – motion.

The mobility of the atmosphere is such that the least influence that changes its balance will put it in motion. While we can account in a general way for atmospheric movements, there are many problems relating to the details that are unsolved. We find that even the "weather man" makes mistakes in his prognostications; so true is this that it is never safe to plan a picnic for to-morrow based upon the predictions of to-day. The chief difficulty in the way of solving the great problems relating to the sudden changes in the weather and temperature lies in the fact that two-thirds or more of the earth's surface is covered with water; thus making it impossible to establish stations for observation that would be evenly distributed all over the earth's surface. Enough is known, however, to make the study of meteorology a most wonderfully interesting subject.

We have already stated that air is composed of a mixture of oxygen and nitrogen chiefly, with a small amount of carbon dioxide. So far as the life and health of the animal is concerned we could get along without this latter substance, but it seems to be a necessity in the growth of vegetation. There are other things in the air which, while they are unnecessary for breathing purposes, it will be well for us to understand, as some of them are things to be avoided rather than inhaled.

As before mentioned, air contains moisture, which is a very variable quantity. In a cold day in winter it is not more than one-thousandth part, while in a warm day in summer it may equal one-fortieth of the quantity of air in a given space. There is also a small amount of ammonia, perhaps not over one-sixty-millionth. Oxygen also exists in the air in very small quantities in another form called ozone. One way to produce ozone is by passing an electric spark through air. Anyone who has operated a Holtz machine has noticed a peculiar smell attending the disruptive discharges, which is the odor of ozone. It is what chemists call an allotropic form of oxygen, just as the diamond, graphite, and charcoal are all different forms of carbon, and yet the chemical differences are scarcely traceable. It is more stimulating to breathe than oxygen and is probably produced by lightning discharges.

As has been before stated, the oxygen of the air is consumed by all processes of combustion, and in this we include the breathing of men and animals and the decay of vegetable matter, as well as the more active combustion arising from fires. A grown person consumes something over 400 gallons of oxygen per day, and it is estimated that all the fires on the earth consume in a century as much oxygen as is contained in the air over an area of seventy miles square. All of these processes are throwing into the air carbon dioxide (carbonic acid), which, however, is offset by the power of vegetation to absorb it, where the carbon is retained and forms a part of the woody fiber and pure oxygen is given back into the air. By this process the normal conditions of the air are maintained.