The Olive

The Leaves of the Olive-Tree are astringent, and fit for to stop the Bleeding of the Nose, and Looseness.

There are certain wild Olive-Trees that grow near the Red-Sea, from which there sweats out a Gum that stops Blood, and cures Wounds.

The Olive-Tree in Latin called Olea, comes from the Greek Word elaia which also signifies the same Thing.”

A later work, “The Lady’s Assistant” published in 1778, gives a much better idea of how little they were used at that time in England.

OLIVES

“OLIVES are the fruits of trees, which grow wild in the warmer parts of Europe; we have them in some of our gardens; but with us they will not ripen to any perfection.

There are three kinds, the Italian, Spanish, and French; we have them therefore of various sizes and flavors; some prefer one, and some the other.

The fine sallad oil, as has been before mentioned, is made from this fruit, for which purpose they are gathered ripe; but for pickling they are gathered when half-ripe, at the latter end of June: they are put into fresh water to soak for two days; after this they throw them into lime-water in which some pearl-ashes have been dissolved: they lie in this liquor six-and-thirty hours; then they are thrown into water which has had bay-salt dissolved in it: this is the last preparation, and they are sent over to us in this liquor: they are naturally as they grow on the tree very bitter, and therefore require all these preparations to bring them to their fine flavor. To some olives they add a small quantity of essence of spices, which is an oil drawn from cloves, nutmeg, cinnamon, coriander and sweet-fennel seed distilled together for that purpose: twelve drops are enough for a bushel of olives: some prefer them flavored with this essence, but others like them best plain.”

At present the use of aromatic substances commercially is not large. It is contended that consumers cannot use flavored olives in sauces or other preparations so freely, as extraneous flavors are introduced which in some cases are undesirable, the unflavored olive permitting greater freedom in use.

For the preparation of the green olives “a la Sevillane,” the fruit is first treated with alkali, then washed in clear water, after which it is put into 2 or 3 per cent boiled brine, where after a time fermentation starts, which imparts a slight lactic acid taste to the fruit. It is then washed in water, graded for size, and put in barrels with a 5 or 6 % salt, when they are ready for consumption.

The half ripe olives are put in a boiled brine of 12 to 15 % for six days, after which they are washed in running water and then put in jars in a 6 to 8 % brine with a bay leaf and a sprig of thyme and fennel. Olives prepared in this way are called “a la Provencale.” A variation on this method, called “a la Madrilene” is to put the olives in barrels, after the preliminary salting and washing, in 10 % brine with red pimiento, pepper corns, laurel, thyme, and tomato purée.

The black olives are gathered at the time of the change in color, and put in water, renewed every 12 hours, until the bitterness has disappeared, which requires 40 to 50 days, sometimes even longer. They are then put into brine.

The large olive “La Tanche” after sorting and cleaning is put directly into a 10 to 15 % brine in wooden casks or cement tanks which hold from 4,000 to 6,000 kilos. When the bitterness has been abstracted, they are ready for sale. The brine is decanted and held until the following year.

To prepare them so that they may be ready for sale sooner, the fruit is run over a roller provided with fine points which perforate the skin, after which the olives are put in layers and sprinkled generously with salt. They are stirred frequently, and when they “sweat,” they are put in barrels with pepper corns and bay leaves, or in jars with olive oil and condiments, or they may be put in jars without any addition as they are preserved by their own oil and the absorbed salt.

The methods of preparation cited are those used for olives consumed in foreign countries, very few thus prepared being imported, as they are known only to olive connoisseurs.

Imported Green Olives

Nearly all the green olives used in this country come from Spain and are generally known as “Queen olives.” In years of shortage a few come from Italy, Greece, and France. They are hand picked, cleaned, treated in the usual way with lye, and washed, but during this process care is exercised to prevent them being exposed to the air as it is desired to retain the green color. They are then graded for size and quality and placed in huge casks or “pipes” with sufficient brine to cover them. The “pipes” are exposed to the sun to favor the fermentation which requires six weeks or more, depending upon the temperature. During the fermentation, the olives change slowly from deep green to golden. The pipes hold from 160 to 180 gallons and are used for shipping the olives to this country. Ten per cent brine is used for filling the casks, but the brine weakens during the curing and is usually 7 or 7½% at the finish.

The Queen olives are hand graded for size on the basis of the number per kilo. The following grades are made:

They are also graded for quality, as: “prime” or “first quality,” “seconds,” and “Queen culls.” Only the first and second grade are sent to this country though all sizes are, but there is no designation by which the consumer may obtain a desired size. The term Queen olive may mean those having only 60 to the kilo or those with 220 to the kilo.

Some green olives are packed in tins and shipped to this country and a comparatively few are brought in bottles. The importers prefer to purchase the olives in bulk and pack according to their trade requirements, under the sanitary conditions imposed in this country rather than those found abroad. The olives are transferred from the pipes to bottles and either supplied with fresh brine or the brine from the pipe is carefully filtered and only such addition made as needed to make up the difference. The use of the original liquor gives a decidedly better flavor, though it is often sacrificed in order to get one which is perfectly clear.

The green olive is retailed almost wholly in glass, either in fancy hand packed packages or in pint and quart jars. Many attempts have been made to create a sale in tin containers, but without success as there are decided advantages in being able to see the size and quality. Seeing the fruit no doubt frequently suggests its use and purchase. A few olives are still retailed in bulk but they soon become covered with yeast and other organisms, and have an unattractive appearance.

The origin of the stuffed olive is of very recent date, but by whom originated is not quite clear. According to an authority[1 - H. C. Newcomb, former vice-consul to Spain.] on Spanish olives, stuffed olives were unknown before 1893-4. It was in 1895 that Señor Picasa, the general manager of the Sevilla Packing Company, had seen olives stuffed with pimientos in Spain, and in the following year introduced them into the United States, the company packing them under the copyrighted name of “Pimola.” In 1897, a Spanish house packed pepper-stuffed olives, and later on other firms also, among the latter many American firms. As the pimiento is grown and prepared in Spain, and labor cheaper there than here, the industry has been practically transferred to that country.

The operation of stuffing consists in removing the pit and filling the cavity with some other substance, particularly pimiento, these forming the bulk of the stuffed olive trade. The bright red of the latter gives a pleasing contrast with the green, and the mild pungency is very agreeable to many persons. Pickled celery, capers, etc., have been used, but were not so favorably received, and at present, the substances used to any extent, aside from the pimiento, are Manzanillos stuffed with pieces of Queens, and some stuffed with anchovies for the South American trade. Pitting machines have been devised, and also machines for stuffing the olives, but the work done by the stuffing machines is crude as compared with hand work. The olives used for stuffing are the Manzanillo which are smaller than the Queen. The sizes are as follows:

They are packed in barrels of about 45 gallons capacity, and like the Queen, are repacked into individual containers in this country.

A few olives are packed with a mince of capers, anchovies, truffles, etc., and the olives preserved in oil. A few are also packed for garnishing, in which cubes are cut out and the spaces filled with bright peppers.

Domestic

In California the commercially prepared olives are practically all ripe, only a very limited quantity of green ones being prepared. Since the olives, even on the same tree, ripen at various periods, three pickings are made during the season, when olives well colored and of an equal degree of ripeness are taken. In excessively ripe olives, the skin toughens, and the fruit is difficult to pickle. The trees are pruned so as to keep them low enough to be reached by the harvesters on step ladders, in order that all picking may be done by hand. The picked fruit is taken to a central point to be filled into boxes or barrels, for transportation to the factory. For the best grades of olives, particular care is taken during this part of the work to avoid bruising the fruit, which is picked into canvas bags, pails, etc., then poured into barrels partly filled with water, so that the water will furnish a cushion for the fruit. The olives are transported to the factory in these barrels. These precautions are taken as bruised spots soften and become black, and the resulting processed fruit will not be of first quality. Many growers deliver fruit dry in lug boxes, but bruising and crushing are liable to occur during transportation. The fruit is delivered into a hopper filled with water, then from the hopper into boxes where the fruit is drained. The fruit is delivered in the factory to be first sorted which is done on a moving belt, and here all stems and defective fruit are removed as the fruit is carried slowly past the workers who sit or stand on either side. In some factories the sorting is done after the fruit is pickled, but is much more difficult due to the change in color through the action of the lye and of oxidation. The fruit is next passed to the grader, which separates the various sizes. From the grader the three largest sizes are each delivered to a moving belt to be sorted for color, degree of ripeness, and culls, as the curing must be modified to suit the particular degree of ripeness, a crisp firm olive requiring a heavier treatment than does a riper, softer-textured one. The olives as sorted, are passed to small side belts, which thus deliver fruit uniform in size and color to the receiving boxes. Great care is taken in the sorting of olives, different varieties are not mixed, nor even fruit of the same variety but from different localities. In grading for size by machine, 1/16 of an inch is the variation between each size and the next; those less than 10/16 are removed to be used for other purposes. When the minimum is due to the variety and not to stunting, the fruit may be pickled, because aside from the larger proportion of pit, the flavor is equal to that of the large fruit. Usually the smaller olives were used for oil, but more recently are used for relishes and sauces. The sizes upon which the different grades are made are based upon the short diameter of the fruit, and have been adopted by the California Olive Association:

The olives are placed in an alkaline solution, usually sodium hydrate as it is stronger in action than potassium hydrate. The strength varies with the different packers but is generally in the neighborhood of 1½%. After 6 to 8 hours, the lye is drawn off and the olives exposed to the air in order that they may oxidize and darken, since the lye removes some of the natural color. The operation is repeated with the same strength or less of lye solution and the fruit exposed to the air until examination of the pulp shows that the lye has penetrated to the pit. The lye solution is then replaced with clear water which is changed twice a day, until the lye and bitterness are removed, which requires from 4 to 8 days. The olives are then treated with brine solutions, starting with 1 %, and increasing the strength at intervals of about 2 days until about 4 % is used, when they are ready to be put in glass jars or cans and sealed.

The brine is used very weak at the start and gradually increased so that the osmotic action may be so controlled as not to cause the fruit to shrivel as it would if placed in a strong solution at the start. Some packers permit the olives to stay in the weak brine long enough for fermentation to take place as done with the imported green olives so as to develop an acid flavor. The more recent tendency, however, is toward packing them with the least possible change, and to depend upon the distinctive natural flavor of the fruit itself. A similar tendency toward retaining the natural color, rather than that induced by oxidation, might be advantageous.

If it be the intent to hold the olives in bulk, they are treated with increasingly strong brines until 10 to 12½% is used, the latter amount being required to carry them safely through the summer.

The process is modified in practise to suit the conditions, as variations in varieties of fruit, in temperature, and in the lye have to be considered. There are also variations in practise due to individual experience. During the time the olives are in the various solutions they are stirred frequently, so as to change their position in the vats, and also to change the solution in contact with them. The stirring was, and is done yet in some cases, by hand, with wooden paddles, which is laborious besides causing more or less damage to the fruit. Recently compressed air has been piped to the vats and directed into the solutions with sufficient force to keep the olives agitated. This method is said to hasten the action of the lye solutions with consequent improvement in the fruit. It also obviates the drawing off the solutions and the exposure of the fruit to the air, as a certain amount of oxidation takes place in the solution.

As the operators place the olives in the bottles or cans, the soft and defective ones are discarded. The containers are then filled with a 3 % brine at a temperature of 175 or 180 degrees F. The air is exhausted, during which the temperature is raised to 185 degrees, and the containers sealed, after which they are processed. The large olives in a 26 ounce glass jar are cooked for 50 minutes; extra large, 55 minutes; mammoth, 58 minutes; and colossal 60 minutes; at 240 degree F. in some factories, or for a longer period if processed at a lower temperature.

The time required for heat to penetrate to the center of an olive is longer than has been generally supposed. This was determined by carefully drilling into the pit, first with a fine drill and then with increasingly larger ones, until an eighth inch hole was made. The bulb of a small thermometer was inserted, and to prevent heat being carried to the bulb by means of the glass stem, sections of olives were placed around the stem immediately above the olive being tested, and tied securely. Jumbo olives at room temperature placed directly in a boiling bath required on an average fourteen and one-half minutes for the temperature to reach 209 degrees F., which is practically the maximum which can be attained under the conditions. When the olive was placed in cold water and the bath heated rapidly under conditions similar to home canning, the average time required to reach 209 degrees F. was 29 minutes. The former experiment represents a more favorable condition for heat penetration than prevails in factory operations, and the latter probably the least favorable, but both show that in the ordinary process all parts of the olive do not reach the high temperature supposed to be produced by that of the bath for more than a few minutes.

At the University of California ripe olives have been canned without brine. After pickling, the olives have been placed in 3 % brine for several days, then heated in the brine to about 180 degrees F. after which they are taken from the brine, put in the bottles or cans, sealed, and processed. No shrinking, wrinkling, softening, nor change in color is said to take place. By the elimination of the brine in the container, there results a saving in freight of 31.5 % with cans and 16.6 % with bottles.

The history of the olive and its method of preparation show that no organisms pathogenic to man are normally present and that if such organisms be associated with it in any way, it must be from the outside and through local infection.

More care is required in processing at high temperatures, than at boiling. A high internal pressure is developed inside the cans or jars, due to the expansion of the contents and of the enclosed gases, which has a tendency to loosen or blow off the covers. This tendency may be overcome by applying air or water pressure on the outside of the cans or jars to counteract that generated within. This is done while they are inside the retort and by means of automatic pressure controllers. There is no essential difference in the sterilizing and cooling of tin cans and glass jars, both forms of containers are responsive to treatment with high temperatures and both require proper care and handling. As with pickled olives, however, glass jars permit the purchaser to see the size and the condition of the fruit.

The canning of ripe olives in California was originated by F. T. Bioletti, zymologist in the University of California, and came about through an investigation in 1889 on the spoiling of olives. When pickled olives were held, the quality deteriorated in some of them, they softened during the summer, and seldom remained in an edible condition for a year. As a result of his experiments on methods of keeping, he found that the olives could be sterilized in sealed containers and be kept in edible condition indefinitely. The commercial application of the method and the popularizing of the ripe olive is due to Mrs. Freda Ehmann, a pioneer olive grower, who applied scientific methods, with marked success, to both the development and canning of the olive.

The sustained scientific work along developmental and preserving lines in this country, has been done mainly by Wickson, Bioletti, and Cruess of the state university staff to whom great credit is due for the advancement made. Many improvements have naturally been made by manufacturers in the preparation of the ripe olive but are held by the factories for their own use solely.

Recently Cruess has developed methods for treating the ripe olive with aerated hot solutions which have permitted the preliminary treatments to be done in 3 to 6 days, instead of as formerly in 3 to 6 weeks. The methods promise to be of great economic value, and have been patented for the benefit of the public.

The olives which are too small or misshapen to be used in the regular pack are sometimes used for other purposes besides oil extraction in which size and appearance are not factors. The flesh is ground and seasoned and thus furnishes a mixture for relishes and sandwich filling, or the flesh is mixed with pickled cucumbers, capers, pimiento, tomato, etc., in various combinations for the same purposes or to flavor sauces. The appetizing ways in which olives may be used alone or in combination, and the attractive dishes which can be prepared from them are endless.

A preparation which has considerable vogue with lovers of ripe olives is to take the olives from the brine some hours before using and cover them with olive oil. This preparation may be further enhanced by rubbing the dish before using, with a cut clove of garlic. The use of aromatics in the preliminary preparation, then packing in oil, as done by the Greeks, Italians, and Spaniards, with some of their best olives, produce very fine products that are far ahead, in both flavor and food value, of the ordinary preparations.

The olive, though used almost exclusively as a relish or appetizer in this country, is a valuable food. This is true for both the green and the ripe, the difference in the two not being so great as is frequently claimed. The pickled green olive has supplanted the cucumber pickle to a very considerable extent in the trade. The canned ripe olive is distinctive and depends upon an entirely different quality for its favor. As long as the present prices prevail, they can not be considered on the basis of staples or in competition with many other foods in furnishing nutritive elements.

The flesh of the American olive consists of about 80 per cent of the fruit, and of this the solids average 38 per cent, oil 25 per cent, and protein 1.2 per cent.

In spite of the fact that olives have been used as a food from time immemorial, very little systematic analytic work seems to have been done on the whole fruit in the various stages of maturity and in determining the effect of the various treatments for the removal of the bitterness. Much of the analytic work has been devoted to analyses of the oil and to methods for determining adulteration. The methods followed in this country and abroad are not the same and the results are therefore not comparable. It seems strange that so old and so commercially important a fruit has not been investigated to the minutest detail.

It is stated that the olive on reaching full size increases in weight and oil content as it matures, the various stages being approximately determined by the change in color from green to yellow, red, and finally black. When, however, one finds analyses of typical fruit of one variety and from the same place which show the flesh of the green olive to contain 23.55 per cent; yellowish green, 20.37 per cent; red, 27.35 per cent; and purple to black, 24.89 per cent oil, it discounts the color value. Other available analyses show similar discrepancies between the chemical composition and the color test as indicative of maturity. Variation in composition occurs in the same variety of fruit grown in different places as well as in the different varieties and, as with other fruits, one is dependent upon the skill of the packer in selecting raw stock and in handling it in the process of manufacture, for the quality of the article received. It is only natural to expect that a product containing so much oil and subjected to the action of lye, might be greatly changed during its preparation. The data available, however, does not sustain this premise, but shows that very little change actually takes place.

notes

1

H. C. Newcomb, former vice-consul to Spain.