Relaxation and Meditation Techniques: A Complete Stress-proofing System

The Causes and Nature of Stress (#ulink_fd199f31-8f9e-58a2-812d-5ae21ac941a6)

Stress-induced illnesses have now replaced infectious diseases as the most prevalent health afflictions affecting the industrialized nations. Many of these illnesses, including arthritis, cardiovascular disease, respiratory disease, cancer, depression etc., seem to be associated both with stress (and other factors), and particular types of personality. Aspects of the equation require attention of course, and stress reduction and stress-proofing, as well as personality or behavioural modification, all present ways in which the individual can evade the consequences of stress.

Stress can be seen to be most harmful when there is an inappropriate response to it. When, for example, a man strolling in a field is confronted by a charging bull, his sprint to the nearest gate can be seen to be entirely appropriate as a response to the stress factor. He judged and matched the required response and no ill effects would result from the incident. On the other hand, the individual’s judgement of what is an appropriate response may be faulty, for example when anger is generated and maintained in response to a minor incident. Attitudes, beliefs and habitual patterns of behaviour can be seen to be the arbiters of whether the individual responds appropriately to a particular stress factor and, therefore, of whether there is consequent harm in terms of physiological stress.

There are a number of defensive tricks which the mind can play in response to any challenge or stress. These include repression of thoughts and memories which might prove stressful, as well as ‘rationalization’, in which the individual makes up an account of his behaviour in response to stress, the true explanation of which would produce anxiety. Such common defences, if producing anxiety states or personality changes, require professional psychotherapy to provide insights into and a resolution of the problem.

It is self-evident then, that what is to one individual, a major stress factor, may to another be only a minor irritant. The difference lies in the individual’s attitude towards the stress factor. For one person, for example, the meeting of a deadline, the need to be at a particular place at a fixed time, is of vital importance, and the prospect of being late, of failing to meet the deadline, generates a great deal of tension and anxiety (i.e. stress). To another person, such deadlines are mere guidelines, and no particular worry is felt at their being missed.

Attitudes depend upon the individual’s concept of reality. The world as he sees it is his own reality, and when this comes into conflict with the external environment, stress results. To some extent, all change represents stress. Anything that calls upon the mind-body totality (the individual) to adjust or change from that which is normal, represents stress. The individual’s concept of what is normal, what is right, how things ought to be, is therefore the sounding board on which the external environmental factors operate. Beliefs and attitudes often determine the degree of stress, anxiety etc. experienced. For example, the death of someone close is undoubtedly a major stress factor, and yet to someone whose beliefs include a certainty of an after-life or of reincarnation, the death will be seen as part of a continuous process, not an end, and therefore the amount of stress will be minimized.

It has been possible to grade the potential of events or changes in an individual’s life. In the following chart, scores have been allotted to each event so that the degree of susceptibility to the effects of stress can be estimated. This can be valuable in alerting individuals to pay extra attention to dealing with those elements of health maintenance which are within their control. Some such methods will be dealt with in Chapter 5.

Stress and Changes in Lifestyle

This scale is based on the work of T. H. Holmes and R. H. Rahe (Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 1967, No. 11) and is meant as a guide to the assessment of measurable stress factors, resulting from having to adjust to change. There are many other sources of stress, but it is true to say that a high score on this chart (300 or more) over a short time-span (six months or so), is a strong indicator (affecting 80 per cent of people) of the likelihood of major illness becoming apparent. If the score is relatively high, anything from 150 to 299 points, about 50 per cent of people become ill soon afterwards, and if under 150 points are scored, fewer than 30 per cent become ill. The higher the score, the greater the need for stress-proofing.

It is known that these scores and the position on the scale of some of the incidents, vary in different cultures. Different belief systems place the stress of marriage higher in Europe, for example, than in Japan. It is also clear from the list that stress factors are not necessarily unpleasant episodes. A holiday for example is seen as a cause of stress. Change itself, pleasant or unpleasant, is therefore one potential for stress. But it can be argued that since even in high-scoring individuals, 20 per cent do not become ill soon afterwards, it is the response of the individual, his attitudes, beliefs and underlying health status, that is the real determining factor in the effects of stress. This list can be used as a guide, but it should be coupled with thoughts as to what are the most appropriate, least stressful, responses; these responses should then be cultivated.

There is another element in life, which can often produce even more stress than events and changes which actually take place. This is the highly charged area of anticipated problems or events. Whilst losing a job is indeed a high-scoring stress factor, the anticipation of such a loss presents potentially greater stresses by virtue of the time-scale involved. Once a job has been lost, the reality of the situation determines that the individual does something about the matter. Looking for a new job, making practical arrangements regarding finance etc. are all stressful but are, in fact, responses to the event. If, however, there are rumours of possible redundancy, and the anxiety and uncertainty continues for months or years, then the stress induced may be far greater. It is nevertheless worth remembering that, in such a case, there are practical steps which can be taken to minimize the effects of the stress once the individual realizes what is happening.

So, apart from actual changes in life being potentially stressful, it is also evident that anticipation of such changes (i.e. projecting from the present into possible future happenings) also creates stress. It is also, unfortunately, true that much stress relates to an inability to resolve events which are in the past. Guilt, self-pity, brooding over past events, real or imagined, therefore present another major area of stress production. Not only does such attention to the past produce stressful changes in the body, but it greatly diminishes the individual’s ability to function well in the present.

Those factors which have a potential for allowing stress may be seen as real physical events, such as intense noise, extreme heat or cold, or as real, anticipated or remembered unpleasant events, such as divorce; in addition, any change from the status quo, such as a visit, a holiday or promotion at work are likely to involve some stress. Such factors can be termed ‘stressors’, and the potential for harm of all of these will be tempered by attitudes, emotions and personality factors. Conflicts, real or imagined, between the individual and other people or groups is a further major stress factor. The strain, conflict and pressure, resulting from any variety of stressors, may produce an anxiety state which may be short-lived or long-term, depending upon underlying personality traits, acquired attitudes, beliefs and so on. Since it is not possible, in the main, to protect oneself against the major changes in life, it should be thought of as desirable and necessary that attitudes should be cultivated which will minimize the effects of the inevitable vicissitudes of life.

External stress factors, whilst easy to identify, are less easy to measure and control. These might include excessive noise (engineering workers); exposure to excessive heat (bakers), or cold (workers in cold-storage areas); intensely boring or repetitive occupations (assembly line workers), and such factors as commuting on an unreliable transport system, or having to drive in heavy traffic for hours every day. Other, more extreme, examples of constant external stress factors are those endured by people working in areas of potential danger (police, soldiers, deep-sea divers), or of particularly unnatural working conditions (miners, oil-rig workers) etc The body responds to all such stresses in accordance with a predictable pattern of internal changes. Stress is, however, cumulative, and a relatively minor event, when added to a large existing stress load, will often prove to be more than the body’s adaptation processes can cope with. To a large extent, the breaking point can be avoided by taking care of that aspect of the stress jigsaw puzzle, most easily alterable, i.e. the personal habits, and life-style, of the individual. A change in attitude can dramatically alter the potential for damage, created by externally generated stress, but such a change is far more difficult to achieve than, for example, an improvement in rest, exercise, sleep and nutrition.

From childhood onwards, stress provides a spurt and incentive to development. The will to please others and to satisfy inner drives, are responses to needs, desires and targets or goals, set by authority, society, family, self, etc. This aspect of stress is vital to human survival and development. It is when there are inappropriate responses to such drives that stress becomes potentially harmful. Whether considering early childhood development, schooling, family life, courtship, marriage, higher education, work or retirement, life presents a kaleidoscope of stressful events, challenges, obstacles, pitfalls and sometimes tragedies. The ground on which these events fall is the personality and make-up of the individual, and since the avoidance of all stressful events and stages in life is not possible, it is this ground, the personality and belief system, that presents the main opportunity for modification, and consequent lessening of the impact of stressors.

Cardiologists, Friedman and Rosenmann, have described the ‘type A’ personality who is predisposed to heart disease. The type A individual moves, walks, talks and eats quickly. He finds it difficult to relax, sets himself deadlines, often undertakes more than one task at a time; he fidgets, is ambitious, and so on. The ‘type B’, who is much less prone to heart disease, is a direct contrast; this type moves, talks and eats slowly, is able to relax; is unambitious, avoids pressure and deadlines etc. None of this is too surprising, but what is exciting is that, when motivated (often by an early coronary), the type A can turn into a type B, by altering his behaviour, to actually copy type B mannerisms until they become habitual. There is a consequent drop in the likelihood of coronary disease following such a modification. Type A will have then adopted more desirable and appropriate responses to the needs of life, and will have enhanced his chances of long-term survival.

It is now evident that living in the present lessens the tendency to dwell on past or future events, or on anticipated events. A further aspect of this is that the nearer the individual’s concept of reality is to actual life, the less stress there will be created. Reality may not always be the same for all people, but in many daily situations, the stress felt by people is the direct result of their ‘fantasy’, of how things should be, being at odds with reality. My ‘fantasy’, for example is that when people make appointments they ought to keep them, and what is more, they ought to be on time. In reality, however, this is often not the case. The annoyance and stress which is generated every time an appointment is missed and someone is late, could be avoided if I could bring my fantasy closer to real life, i. e. anticipate that people will, by the nature of things, be late for or will actually forget to keep their appointments from time to time.

In terms of attitudes to life and events, such thoughts or phrases as ‘if only …’ or ‘it should have been like …’, or ‘wouldn’t it have been nice if …’ indicate a failure to accept reality or an unwillingness to accept what has actually happened. This type of ‘fantasy’ may appear harmless, but it is as potentially stressful as dwelling in the past or future. It is, in fact, another facet of that same tendency. ‘Be there now’ is the best piece of advice for such an individual to bear in mind. Life is in the ‘here and now’. In the past, the future and the ‘if only’ lie shadows, demons and stress. Nowhere is this more evident than in personal relationships, whether this be at work or in the home environment. Much stress results from an inability to express feelings clearly, without becoming upset. If feelings are expressed inadequately, then hostility and anger will often develop. Once again, many such stresses relate to differences of opinion as to what is, and what is not reality. Interpersonal relationships require that individuals express their feelings clearly and in a non-hostile manner, and that they are then prepared to listen to a similar expression of the other individual’s views, without feeling ‘got at’ or under attack. This is the ideal of course, and it may be difficult to achieve because of long-held attitudes and firmly-rooted personality traits, but it is, undoubtedly, the way to ensure non-stressful relationships. Seeing reality in the present, the ability to deliver unbiased, non-hostile expressions of opinion, and the ability to listen are, then, qualities to be cultivated.

In personal relationships, much tension is generated as a result of unfulfilled expectations. If one party anticipates a gesture or form of recognition (such as a birthday card or telephone call), which does not materialize, a tense and resentful attitude may ensue. Again, an ability to communicate can defuse such a situation. Errors or sins of omission are just as potentially stressful as sins of commission; i.e. non-events as opposed to actual events. If bottled up and nursed, such feelings can produce stress out of all proportions to the importance of the actual incident.

The range of possible stress factors is almost endless, and the possible permutations of reaction to them, equally so. It has been said that there are only two basic emotions, ‘like’ and ‘dislike’. All other emotions stem from variations and degrees of these prime feelings. The amazing differences in individuals, tastes, likes, dislikes and so on, makes it obvious that there is seldom any intrinsic quality in an event, object or situation, which guarantees it being universally liked or disliked (one man’s meat is patently another man’s poison). It is also worth noting that at different stages in life and under different conditions, the same individual’s ‘likes’ and ‘dislikes’ will vary. The conclusion may be drawn that the individual can possibly be taught, or can teach himself, to like what was previously disliked, and vice versa Thus if, because of degrees of ‘liking’ or ‘disliking’, a person’s behaviour gives rise to a more stressful existence and more problematic relationships than are desirable, reduction of stress is possible only through a basic change in attitudes. Just as type A must change from a fast-moving, fast-talking, fast-acting, fast-eating individual to one with more deliberate habits, so must the individual who says ‘that’s how I am, I can’t change!’ be made to understand that change is not only possible but desirable, and that self-interest dictates that it should be so. Changing habits and attitudes is merely a matter of understanding and recognizing them for what they are, followed by modifications in behaviour. This is easily said and, obviously, not as easily achieved. However, as will become clear, the alternatives to such behavioural modification may often be serious illness.

In considering behavioural modification – the changing of habitual attitudes and ways of responding, it is important to realize that whenever we behave in a particular manner, we reinforce the belief that lies behind that form of behaviour. If there is always an angry tantrum in response to real or imagined criticism, then the individual’s belief that this is the appropriate response will be reinforced by each such outburst. To alter the underlying belief requires an altered response. By substituting a less stressful, less provocative reaction, the belief will develop, and be reinforced that the new reaction is correct and appropriate. Obviously, in interpersonal relationships, two such modified responses may be needed and this is not easy to arrange. Once the individual realizes the role that habit plays in reinforcing undesirable modes of behaviour, it is possible to begin to change. By acting in a manner in which the other person is dealt with as you would wish to be dealt with yourself, and by expressing whatever needs to be said honestly and calmly, the opportunity will grow for a less stressful relationship. Such behaviour changes often spark changes for the better in the other half of the relationship.

It is worth noting that no-one and nothing makes you angry. You do it all on your own. Such feelings are always self-generated, and this is true of most emotions. We choose to be angry, jealous, guilty, bitter, etc. and, equally, we choose to be happy, giving, loving, etc. Our attitudes and behaviour can be self-modified, and most experiences present a choice of response – one negative and stressful and the other positive and, potentially, offering the opportunity for growth and self-knowledge– the choice remains with the individual. Attention to the stress-reducing measures presented in later chapters, becomes a clear matter of whether the individual is prepared to accept responsibility for his life and action, or not.

Stress is cumulative. Whilst, in early life, most people can cope with a great deal of emotional and physical trauma, this facility diminishes as life progresses. There are, of course, inherited characteristics which will influence every individual’s particular capacity for coping. There are other factors which will also, to varying degrees, determine to what extent stress can influence the individual’s physical and mental health. Among these are nutritional considerations, structural factors, exercise patterns, general fatigue, and the sum total – long-term and in the recent past – of stress. These influences will become clearer in later chapters. At this stage, it is worth noting that stress is the spur that moves man to action, and that, if responses are not appropriate, it can also become the boulder that crushes him.

There is indeed a point at which the body’s capacity for adjusting to and adapting in the face of stress becomes inadequate. When this occurs, health begins to break down in obvious ways. This will be dealt with in the next chapter, in greater detail, but it is important to note that this very noticeable deterioration in health is itself a potent stressor. Anxiety in the face of changes in function, the onset of pain etc., quickens the downward spiral. If the individual waits for this stage before undertaking reforms, he may have waited too long. It is still often possible to regain health at this stage, but only with great effort.

There are extrinsic factors which are outside the individual’s control, but there are also many aspects of the picture which are controllable. There are, of course, states of mind which generate stress, which are outside the conscious control of the individual. There are many deep-seated anxiety states and depressions, in which only skilled psychotherapy and counselling will enable the individual to achieve insights and understanding and ultimately, a resolution of his problem. Such forms of treatment lie outside the scope of this book, but it is suggested that the general principles outlined here and the techniques described can only be of help, even in such cases. However, no-one who is receiving psychotherapy should attempt self-treatment without first consulting his practitioner.

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The Physical Effects of Stress (#ulink_15b84c0e-0176-5eb8-9780-d3a09a93b44b)

Stress is an essential and constant part of life. It is the spur that drives man to all achievement. When excessive, it can also destroy him. All the ages and stages of life are transitional; from baby to toddler, from schoolchild to young adult, from active worker to retired pensioner and so on. Likewise, all change has potential stress implications which, overlayed upon the external and internal stresses of living, are constantly affecting the mind and body of the individual.

One definition of stress, given by the great researcher into this ubiquitous phenomenon, Dr Hans Selye, is simply ‘the rate of wear and tear on the body’. All change requires adaptation on the part of the organism. If we go from a warm room into the freezing cold outdoors, adaptive mechanisms immediately become operative to help the body to maintain its equilibrium. Adaptive processes take place in response to all changes and stressors, whether these are physical, such as heat and cold, chemical, such as polluted water and air, drugs, or self-generated emotions such as anger, grief or joy. Anything that is perceived as threatening the mind or body, arouses a response of an adaptive or defensive nature instantly. This ability to attempt to maintain the safe equilibrium of the body is known as homeostasis. It is, for a variety of reasons, not always successful. The biochemistry of the body may be inadequate for the task, perhaps through faulty nutrition, and this and other possible factors, including structural integrity, will be considered later. If the response is inadequate, or if perception of threats is inaccurate, then unbalanced and faulty body adjustments may occur with harmful consequences.

The normal stress reaction is seldom the result of the outside agency, but rather it is the system’s reaction to it. Whether the stressor is physical, such as sudden exposure to cold, or psychological, such as a sudden crisis or a change of responsibility at work, unpleasant news, etc., the body begins to make biochemical changes in response to its perceived needs. Such changes take place almost constantly throughout life to a greater or lesser degree. If a stressor is prolonged, continuous or extreme in its nature, then the defensive mechanisms of the body become even more active. In response to intense heat, changes take place in the blood chemistry and circulatory system in order to cool the body by means, for example, of extra fluid loss and evaporation through the skin. Should this fail to achieve the desired effect, then an even greater defensive effort might involve fainting and temporary unconsciousness, in order to reduce all bodily functions to a minimum. Such homeostatic efforts, though, fall short of being actual stress reactions, unless prolonged.

In response to any stress or extreme, the body undergoes a series of changes which Selye has grouped under the heading of the ‘fìght or flight’ reaction. Quite logically, the response to being confronted with real physical danger, such as the appearance of a man-eating animal, would be to attack it or to escape from it. Whichever was the choice, the body would require instantly available energy, strength, concentration, etc. There would be no time for slow deliberation or stages of progressive arousal, for by that time the adversary would be commencing its meal! If an appropriate response (fight or flight) to the stressor were forthcoming, then the biochemical and other changes triggered by the initial shock, would be utilized, and no ill effects would be felt.

Today, people are seldom faced, on a daily basis, with such life and death stress situations. However, the mind and body may be felt to be threatened in many other ways than by a man-eating tiger. Any perceived (accurately or not) threat or danger to the mind or body will produce a similar ‘fight or flight’ reaction, and there may be ways of producing an appropriate response to these. For instance, someone might say something which is perceived as being insulting, hurtful etc. The stress reaction, which includes a tensing of the muscles as well as biochemical (hormonal and other) changes, could simply be ‘bottled up’ and remain as an extra degree of muscular tension. If a suitable verbal and/or physical response were to be found, however, then again the preparation for action would have been expressed and used, and no ill effects would result. The degree of stress imposed on the body will vary with the individual’s perception of what constitutes a threat-one man would laugh and shrug off an insult, another would reach for his gun! It will also vary with the individual’s ability to respond appropriately. One man would calmly but firmly state his views and inform the villain of the piece of his feelings. Another would bluster and fluster and add fuel to the fire, and not obtain psychological release from the hurt and anger within. The stress factor, therefore, cannot be seen as the main determinant of the degree of ‘fight or flight’ reaction, but only as its potential trigger. The harm done to the body by prolonged, repeated arousal, is largely an outcome of the individual’s beliefs, attitudes, personality and ability to see objectively what constitutes real, and what constitutes imagined danger, physically or mentally.

The actual processes that take place during arousal and ‘fight or flight’ reactions are quite amazing to contemplate. It is possible to extrapolate these immediate changes and to see their potential for major physical damage if they are repeated or prolonged. The following process occurs instantly within the body in response to stress: the muscles tense in preparation for activity; the hypothalamus (part of the brain) co-ordinates a number of hormonal changes; the pituitary gland is activated, and among other results of this is the production by the adrenal glands of the hormones, adrenaline and noradrenaline. As a result, a vast number of bodily changes occur; the pupils of the eye dilate – no doubt to see more clearly; the heart pumps more rapidly to service the extra requirements of the tense muscles and this increases the blood pressure; the extra blood for the muscles requires extra oxygen, and the respiratory rate therefore quickens to cope with this, as well as to help expel additional waste products resulting from increased activity. Blood being diverted to potential muscular activity requires the shut-down of some other functions, including reduction in blood through the kidneys, as well as the ceasing of digestive functions. To this end, saliva dries up and the intestines and stomach stop working. The body’s need for additional energy is met by the liver releasing stored glucose into the blood stream, where the oxygen changes it into readily available energy. In anticipation of extra activity, the skin cools the body down by opening its pores to encourage perspiration. Since blood is being diverted to the muscles, there is a tendency for the skin to become paler. There may be involuntary urination or defecation, due to an over-reaction of that part of the nervous system responsible for restoring the status quo (the parasympathetic nervous system); normally, however, the sphincters controlling these functions close to prevent any further activity until the crisis is past. Other aspects of the body’s defence capability, the immune system, becomes less active during such arousal. This makes infection more likely at such a time. Since the muscles are tense, they will be producing lactic acid break-down products, which have the effect of re-inforcing the anxiety and tension felt by the individual. This list of activities is by no means fully comprehensive, but it should give an idea of what a devastating effect prolonged stress has on the normal body functions.

In the initial stages of arousal, most systems adapt to and accommodate such changes. After arousal there is a return to the status quo, especially if the response is adequate. However, if arousal is repeated over and over again, then some of the changes mentioned above stop being temporary and become chronic. The term employed to describe this process is the General Adaptation Syndrome (G. A. S.) As the body adapts to repeated and constant stress factors, and as chronic symptoms become an accepted part of life, the general level of health declines. Such symptoms include headaches, dizziness, insomnia, blurred vision, swallowing difficulties, aching neck and shoulder muscles, high blood pressure, heart problems, circulatory problems, palpitations, asthma, allergies, indigestion, ulcers, backache, skin rashes, excessive sweating, colitis, sexual problems, depression, phobias, irritability, etc.

Disturbances occur in the blood-sugar equilibrium, giving rise to wild swings in energy levels and mood. If this is accompanied by the excessive use of sugar in the diet, and of stimulants such as tea, coffee and chocolate, the body’s ability to maintain a normal blood-sugar level can be severely damaged. (Some researchers see this as a major cause of diabetes.) There is often a tendency to under-perform; self-doubt and insecurity become apparent, and there is a tendency for the defence mechanism to break down, making allergies and infections more likely. Personal relationships become strained, libido often disappears and, as a result of all these changes, further anxiety and stress are created. A vicious circle of declining health, resulting from stress, is the bleak picture which is all too familiar in modern society. Accompanied, as it often is, by poor nutrition, lack of exercise, and debilitating habits such as alcohol, tea, coffee, consumption and cigarette smoking, the formula for disaster is well underway. There is no way in which treatment of any such condition, by the use of drugs and medication, can alter anything but the superficial symptoms. Indeed by doing so and neglecting the underlying causes, symptomatic treatment can do nothing but further harm. Masking and disguising a problem will never provide an answer to it.

This adaptation stage is critical in as much as most, if not all, of the symptoms are still reversible if the underlying stress factors are dealt with and attention is paid to nutrition, exercise, structural integrity, etc. How long this stage lasts depends upon many variables, including inherited factors, as well as the degree of stress, basic health habits, and the degree of emotional support available. After a period of years (ten, twenty or more), depending on this and other variables, the exhaustion stage of the G.A.S. will be reached. At this time, the body simply ceases to be able to cope, and there is a collapse into one or other disease state. Break-down finally occurs when even minor stress factors are not dealt with satisfactorily. At this point there may be collapse into a catastrophic illness, such as coronary heart disease, cancer, etc.

Knowledge of the signs and symptoms of stress, and of some of the ways in which the body copes with stress, can be seen as a necessary step towards understanding the enemy. Without being able to recognize and become aware of stress, it is possible to delude oneself that ‘it just won’t happen to me’.

The combination of prolonged stress and chronic fatigue has been put forward by some researchers, (Drs Poteliakhof and Carruthers in their report, Real Health: the Ill Effects of Stress and their Prevention), as a major factor in the cause of such conditions as rheumatoid arthritis, asthma and hypertension. The combination of lack of sleep, persistent overwork and chronic anxiety is thought to result in hormonal imbalance, notably adrenal exhaustion or sluggishness. This is thought to interact with constitutional and inherited factors to determine the type of disease which develops.

In the field of heart disease, research at Charing Cross Hospital by Dr Peter Nixon (detailed in Stress and Relaxation by Jane Madders, published by Martin Dunitz) has shown contributory causes to be sustained and inappropriately high levels of arousal. This is mainly, he suggests, the result of the following factors:

1. pressures exerted by people from whom there is no escape; 2. unacceptable time pressures, deadlines, etc; 3. sleep deprivation, and 4. a high score in the life-style changes list (see page 15).

Dr Nixon states that drugs are unsatisfactory in the treatment of hypertension, since the underlying causes are not dealt with.

Among other stress-induced conditions are those that mimic more serious conditions. ‘Symptoms suggesting serious neurological disease are common in patients suffering from anxiety states, or depressive illness, partly, or wholly, attributable to the effects of stress’, states Dr Richard Godwin Austin, consultant neurologist of Nottingham General Hospital. ‘The most common example seen in the neurological outpatient clinic is the patient suffering from recent onset headaches … Patients under physical or psychological stress, frequently develop tension headaches. These may occur in the setting of a depressive reaction, with symptoms of agitation or phobia. The headache often fails to respond to any form of simple analgesic.’

There has also been a good deal of research into stress and its relation to the onset of cancer. The German researcher Dr W. Herberger has noted that chronic anger, disappointment, fear and inability to cope with misfortune often play a role in its development. It has been found that the majority of cancer sufferers have a tendency to dwell on past misfortunes, real or imagined, and they have little sense of the future. Dr Hans Moolenburg, a noted Dutch physician, has described cancer patients as people who have been ‘battered by fate’. It has also been noted that in the U.K., where six out of ten members of the general public acknowledge some belief in God or some spiritual agency, that nine out of ten cancer patients had no such belief. Cancer might therefore be described as, in part, a disease of ‘spiritual deficiency’.

Carl Simonton M. D. is one of the world’s leading researchers into the effect of the mind on the development of and recovery from cancer. He stated

: ‘To summarize what I consider the salient points from the literature and my own experience in working in these areas for four years now, the biggest single factor that I can find as predisposing factor to the actual development of the disease is the loss of a serious love object, occuring six to eighteen months prior to the diagnosis. This is well documented in several long-term studies. Now, the significant thing about this is that obviously not everyone who undergoes a serious loss, such as loss of a spouse or a child, develops a malignancy or any other serious disease. That’s only one factor. The loss, whether real or imagined, has to be very significant; and even more important is the feeling that it engenders in the patient. The loss has to be such, and the response to the loss such, that it engenders the feeling of helplessness and hopelessness. Therefore, it’s more than a loss – it’s the culmination of the life-history pattern of the patient. And this also is well defined in the literature.

Personality of the Cancer Patient

‘I believe the work that has come out in Type-A Behaviour and Your Heart (Friedman and Rosenman, 1975), shows clearly that there is a life-history pattern in the development of heart disease, and I believe that, if we continue to look, we will find predisposing psychological factors in the development of all diseases. Those predisposing factors most agreed upon as (negative) personality characteristics of the cancer patient are:

1 a great tendency to hold resentment and a marked inability to forgive.

2 a tendency toward self-pity;

3 a poor ability to develop and maintain meaningful, long-term relationships;