Русский Мир

Staraya Ladoga: 862 – 864

is located in the lower reaches (в низовьях) of the Volkhov River, near its confluence (впадения) with Lake Ladoga. It is considered one of the most ancient settlements in the north-west of modern Russia. Perhaps Rurik himself, the founder of the dynasty that ruled for over seven hundred years, once kept his residence here.

There was a powerful fortress in Staraya Ladoga, which endured invasions and sieges for several centuries.

However, as archaeological excavations have shown, and long before the appearance of Rurik, Staraya Ladoga was a significant settlement and a major trading post, a place of interaction between people of various cultures. Here they didn’t just trade, but also peacefully got along side by side, already in ancient times being an example of genuine multiculturalism and tolerance.

Historian V.O. Klyuchevsky writes that Rurik obviously did not trust the Novgorodians too much. Initially, he preferred to stay away from Novgorod, in Ladoga (currently the village of Staraya Ladoga in Leningrad region) closer to his homeland, where he could hide if necessary.

In Ladoga, in order to ensure his safety, he immediately started building a fortress. It was originally made of wood. Later, his successor, Prince/Knyaz1 Oleg, built a stone Old Ladoga fortress on this site. Its remains were discovered by Russian archaeologists in the XX century

One of the most beautiful and energetically strong coats of arms of Russia is a golden falcon flying down – to attack.

Staraya Ladoga attracts guests from all over the world. The reason for everything is the unique Russian flavor, picturesque nature, amazing architectural ensembles and ancient monasteries. Rest assured, there is something to see in Staraya Ladoga.

Sightseeing is better to start with an ancient defensive structure located in the center of the village on the banks of the Volkhov River. Ladoga Fortress is located on the site of the IX – X century fortification that once stood here. During the reign of Prince Oleg, the fortification was rebuilt from stone. The structure acquired its modern appearance in the XVI century. Interestingly, the Old Ladoga fortress was used as a defensive fort until the first half of the XVIII century. In the 70s of the last century, a museum of local lore was opened within its walls. In summer, a festival with costumed performances and reconstructions of memorable battles takes place next to the military fortification.

St. George’s Church is located inside the fortress – an architectural monument from the pre-Mongol period of Russia. Today there are no services in the church, but here you can see a large collection of frescoes, including the famous work dedicated to St. George piercing the dragon.

It is advised to visit the St. Nicholas Monastery, which was founded in the XIII century in honor of the defeat of the Swedish troops on Staraya Ladoga. In the courtyard of the monastery is the Church of St. St. John Chrysostom, whose walls are decorated with frescoes and paintings with biblical motifs and traditional Russian ornaments. Next to the monastery is the Cathedral of St. Nicholas dating from the XV century.

Novgorod: 862 to 8822

Many researchers believe that Novgorod was the first capital of Russia, where Rurik and Igor ruled since 862.

“Господин Великий Новгород!”

The ancient city was first mentioned in 859 in the Novgorod First Chronicle. In the 9th century, it was a major center of international trade, benefitting (выигрывая) from a favorable location at the crossroads of waterways. The city was governed by the Veche (вече)—the people’s assembly – which elected the knyaz (князь), set taxes, and resolved public matters. Even during the raids of the Golden Horde, Novgorod maintained (сохранил) its independence. In 1478, during the reign of Ivan III Vasilyevich, the city was incorporated (объединена) into the lands of Moscow.

Novgorod played a crucial role (важную роль) in the development of Russian historical science. Thanks to numerous birch bark letters discovered there, scientists have been able to learn not only many facts about political and social history but also to better comprehend (понять) the culture of daily life in ancient Russia. These letters primarily consisted (состояли) of petitions, bills of sale, personal letters, and even spells (заговоры). Especially intriguing (интригующий) from a scientific viewpoint were the letters with drawings. Dating from the 13th century, they are among the oldest examples of children’s artistic expression (детское художественное творчество) that have come down to us.

Remarkably (примечательно), twelve such letters were discovered in Veliky Novgorod. They were created by a boy named Onfim, who was approximately 6—7 years old. He not only wrote on birch bark but also drew on it. (The drawings were not numbered and are not included in the total count of letters). Experts have determined (установили) that all of them were created around 1234—1268, and that they survived together because, most likely, the young boy simply lost them all at the same time.

From the Proto-Slavic language, the Common East Slavic language emerged (выделился) in the 6th-7th centuries. Subsequently (впоследствии), the Common East Slavic language (also known as Old Russian) was formed, and it existed until the 14th century. The feudal fragmentation (феодальная раздробленность) of Russia, along with the separation of northeastern Russia from western and southwestern Russia, led to the formation of the Great Russian state in the 14th-16th centuries and to the subsequent (последующее) development of the Russian language.

The history of the Russian literary language traditionally begins with the advent (появление) of writing. The first reliable written records (письменные памятники) appeared after the baptism of Russia in 988. Russia received liturgical books in Slavic translations from Greek, originating from Bulgaria. These texts were written in Old Slavonic, an artificial written language created by Cyril and Methodius and their disciples (ученики).

When Old Slavonic texts appeared in Russia, their language was influenced (подвергался влиянию) by local East Slavic dialects due to the work of Russian scribes. Thus, the Russian version of the Old Slavonic language came into existence; this version is known as Church Slavonic.

Oleg of Novgorod (Oleg the Wise, Oleg of Kiev), perhaps, is one of the most mysterious rulers of Russia.

According to The Tale of Bygone Years (also known as the Primary Chronicle), after the death of Knyaz Rurik in 879, Oleg ascended to the throne. Before his death, the Grand Knyaz appointed (назначил) Oleg as his successor and instructed (поручил) him to govern the Russian lands until the rightful heir, Igor, came of age (повзрослеет).

Having headed Northern Russia, Knyaz Oleg did not sit idly by and immediately continued the work of his predecessor – the unification of the Slavic-Russian lands into a single power.

Less than three years after Rurik’s death, he gathered a powerful army and, taking little Igor with him, moved south. He subordinated Smolensk and Lyubech (the Northern Key to Kiev) to his power, planting his governors there. The cities were taken without a fight.

“Kiev is the mother of Russian cities” is a translation of a fragment of ancient Russian literature – the Tale of Bygone Years.

The phrase belonged to Knyaz Oleg when he officially declared Kiev the capital, the main city over other settlements of Russia in 882.

Questions

What was the 1st unofficial capital of Rus?

Who was Oleg the Wise?

What are the evidences of novgorodians being literate in the IX century?

One of Novgorod’s most renowned (известных) landmarks is the Monument to the Millennium of Russia. Its grand unveiling (торжественное открытие) took place in 1862, the year following the abolition of serfdom. The monument’s installation date was not chosen arbitrarily (случайно). This date is considered the year of Russia’s inception (возникновения), and after 1000 years, the first millennium of the Russian state was celebrated with great solemnity (торжественно).

The Monument to the Millennium of Russia is located on the square of the Novgorod Kremlin, opposite the majestic St. Sophia Cathedral, and in front of the building housing (размещения) the Museum of the History of Veliky Novgorod. Externally, the monument resembles (напоминает) a Monomakh’s Cap and a large bell. The domed pedestal is topped (увенчан) by a large orb, which has become a symbol of the rule of two royal dynasties – the Rurikovich and Romanov. The sculptural images installed here are dedicated to collective representations (собирательные образы) and specific historical figures – Russian tsars, distinguished (выдающиеся) military leaders, clergymen, writers, and artists.

The monument was created by sculptor Mikhail Mikeshin and Ivan Schroeder, with architect Viktor Hartman.

Height: 15.7m

The monument, shaped like a bell, contains 128 human figures. The sculptural images are divided into three levels.

The Upper Level of Sculptures:

The monument is crowned by a figure kneeling before an angel with a cross (the personification of the Orthodox Church) and a woman personifying Russia. This group is positioned atop (расположена на вершине) the orb (the emblem of royal power), completing the composition. The orb is adorned (украшен) with a relief ornament of crosses (a symbol of the unity of the church and autocracy) and encircled (опоясан) by the inscription

“To the accomplished thousandth of the state of Russia, the prosperous reign of Emperor Alexander III in 1862”.

The Middle Level of Sculptures:

This level contains six groups of figures, totaling seventeen figures surrounding the orb – symbolizing various periods of Russian history. Each group focuses on a specific direction (направлена на) of the world, which carries symbolic meaning and illustrates (показывает) the role of each sovereign in strengthening particular frontiers (рубежи) of the state. This part reflects the most important stages of Russian history: Rurik (862), The Baptism of Rus’ (988), The Battle of Kulikovo (1380), The formation of United Rus’ (end of the 14th century), The beginning of the Romanov dynasty (1613), and the creation of the Russian Empire (1721).

The Lower Level of the Monument:

This level features (представлен) a frieze, on which 109 high-relief (высокий рельеф) figures from history, religion, science, and culture are placed.

Initially, it was intended that the high relief (the third tier) would replicate (повторять) the second tier in a narrative: six medallions, depicting (изображающих) in more detail the six epochs of the Russian state, and portraying (отражают) the people’s involvement in the country’s life, thus completing the triad with “nationality.”

Immediately following the revolutionary events of 1917, the historical monument began to be viewed (рассматриваться) as a symbol of autocracy. It was not demolished but was hidden from public view, covered (закрыт) with boards and plywood sheets. However, these were later removed, and the Monument to the Millennium of Russia was once again made accessible to the public (доступен для просмотра).

At the end of the summer of 1941, Veliky Novgorod was occupied by German forces. In the winter of 1943—1944, the monument began to be dismantled (демонтировать) in order to be transported (вывезти) in pieces to the territory of Germany. The Germans had already managed to dismantle and ship (отправить) the iron grating and bronze lanterns. However, at the end of January 1944, Soviet forces entered the city.

By that time, the historical monument was in a dilapidated condition (в плачевном состоянии). Its upper section (верхняя часть) was almost completely destroyed. A damaged (изуродованный) monument stood on the pedestal, with many details missing – swords, staffs, shields, and spears were all absent.

The city authorities decided to restore (восстановить) the Monument to the Millennium of Russia as quickly as possible. To achieve this, a special narrow-gauge track (узкоколейка) was built leading to it, and scaffolding was erected (были построены строительные леса) for the workers. Almost 1,500 missing parts had to be recast (отлить заново). The grand re-opening (торжественное открытие) of the Novgorod monument took place before the end of the Great Patriotic War, in November 1944.

SUMMARY

Once again on Novgorod’s role as a significant center in early Russian history, focusing on the Russian perspective and its importance before the rise of Kiev as the dominant power. While Novgorod wasn’t the first unified Russian capital in the way Kiev later became, it was a crucial and powerful center that played a foundational role in the development of early Rus’ and had a unique character.

Novgorod’s Significance in Early Rus’ (From a Russian Perspective):

A Key Center on the Trade Routes: From the Russian perspective, Novgorod’s significance stemmed from its strategic location along the “Varangian Route,” a vital trade artery connecting the Baltic Sea with the Byzantine Empire. This route brought wealth and cultural exchange to Novgorod. Control over the trade routes meant prosperity and influence.

Early Slavic Settlement: Novgorod predates the formal founding of the Rurik dynasty. It was a significant Slavic settlement with its own internal governance structures, reflecting an independent spirit and a sense of local autonomy even before the arrival of the Varangians.

Legend of Rurik and the Calling of the Varangians: According to the Primary Chronicle (the primary source for early Russian history, written from a Kiev perspective), the Slavic tribes in the region, including those around Novgorod, invited the Varangian (Viking) chieftain Rurik to rule over them in the 9th century. This event is often seen as the beginning of the Rurik dynasty and the foundation of the Rus’ state. While the Chronicle was written from a later perspective, this is a core part of the Russian historical narrative.

Early Center of Power (Before Kiev’s Rise): Before Kiev emerged as the dominant center, Novgorod was arguably the most important city in the Rus’ territories. It was a prosperous trading hub, had a strong military, and held significant political influence. It functioned as an early center of political and economic gravity for the region.

Republic of Novgorod (12th-15th Centuries): After the power shifted to Kiev, Novgorod developed a unique political system. It became a powerful city-state, often referred to as the “Republic of Novgorod.” This is a particularly important element from the Russian perspective, representing a contrast to autocratic rule.

Veche (Assembly): The Veche, a popular assembly of free citizens, was the ultimate political authority in Novgorod. It elected the city’s officials, made laws, and decided matters of war and peace. This system is viewed with pride as an early form of participatory democracy by some Russian historians and thinkers.

Knyaz’ Role: The power of the Knyaz in Novgorod was limited, often seen more as a military leader and administrator, rather than an absolute ruler. This further distinguished Novgorod from other Rus’ territories with stronger Knyazly control.

Cultural and Religious Center: Novgorod was also an important cultural and religious center. Its unique architectural style, its numerous churches and monasteries, and its rich tradition of icon painting demonstrate the city’s cultural vibrancy. It was a place where Byzantine Christian traditions mingled with local Slavic customs.

Literacy and Education: Novgorod had a high literacy rate for the time, evidenced by the birch bark letters discovered by archaeologists. These letters reveal the everyday lives of its citizens and demonstrate the importance of education and communication in Novgorod.

Strategic Importance (Later): Even after Kiev’s decline and the rise of other centers, Novgorod remained strategically important. It was a major trading hub, a powerful city-state, and a bulwark against potential threats from the north. Its independent spirit often led to conflicts with surrounding Russian principalities.

Paganism

Paganism of Ancient Russia: hierarchy of gods, Slavic rituals and amulets

Before the adoption of Christianity, paganism formed the basis (основа) of our ancestors’ religious beliefs. Pagan ideas were an integral (неотъемлемый) part of the lives of all Slavs, permeating (пронизывая) their existence from birth until their final days.

The core of this belief system lay in the spiritualization of natural forces (одухотворении сил природы). Since paganism is a polytheistic (многобожие) religion, there was no singular concept of God. Instead, they worshipped the sun, storms, the earth, and the wind. Each of the Slavic gods was personified (олицетворялся) by some natural phenomenon or element. The Slavs believed in the existence of three worlds. The first was the invisible Upper World – the realm of the gods. The second was the world of present reality, inhabited by humans. The third world was the underworld, where people went after death. Therefore, they were convinced (уверены) that everything surrounding them was imbued (наделено) with intelligence and power, and that everything was alive.

The Gods of the Eastern Slavs.

In 988, Knyaz Vladimir of Kiev established Christianity in Rus’. Prior to that, the Eastern Slavs were pagans (язычники). This meant that they did not believe in one God, but rather in many distinct gods who stood at the highest level of their pagan religious system. These gods were assigned (наделены) the most important functions and were regarded as the most potent (могущественный) of all pagan deities (языческих божеств) and spirits (духов).

Before the adoption of Christianity, paganism formed the basis (основа) of our ancestors’ religious beliefs. Pagan ideas were an integral (неотъемлемый) part of the lives of all Slavs, permeating (пронизывая) their existence from birth until their final days.

The core of this belief system lay in the spiritualization of natural forces (одухотворении сил природы). Since paganism is a polytheistic (многобожие) religion, there was no singular concept of God. Instead, they worshipped the sun, storms, the earth, and the wind. Each of the Slavic gods was personified (олицетворялся) by some natural phenomenon or element. The Slavs believed in the existence of three worlds. The first was the invisible Upper World – the realm of the gods. The second was the world of present reality, inhabited by humans. The third world was the underworld, where people went after death. Therefore, they were convinced (уверены) that everything surrounding them was imbued (наделено) with intelligence and power, and that everything was alive.

Main gods are presented below

Rod (Род) is considered the god of creation.

Our ancestors believed that a powerful and all-seeing Rod stood above the entire world, both living and inanimate. To Rod belongs the merit (заслуга) of creating people, birds, animals, and other gods.

Everything is within his mighty grasp (в его сильных руках), and Rod governs his creation, the world, wisely and justly, despite the encroachments (посягательства) of dark deities who seek to attain (достичь) unlimited power. With his immense power, Rod was able to achieve (достигнуть) the impossible – from the chaos that reigned around, he created the world and its components.

In Slavic mythology, it is believed that the Creator existed within a universal egg, personifying the cosmic Universe. The God Rod was sent by higher powers to establish order in Chaos. However, according to an alternative view (альтернативное мнение), the progenitor (прародитель) created himself inside the egg.

Rod completed his task. He divided a single mass of chaos into darkness and light, day and night. Dark gods emerged in the dark particles, and light gods in the white ones. As they were all in conflict with each other, the creator of the universe divided the world into three parts:

Prav (Правь) – the world of the bright Gods and the place of residence of the children of the Genus;

Yav (Явь) – the earthly material manifestation of the world;

Nav (Навь) – an invisible world of the underground kingdom of darkness, where spirits dwell without flesh.

All three worlds are interconnected and are regarded as a single Universe.

The true appearance of Rod remains unknown. Legend has it that after the creation of the world, the God dissolved into it, but continued to exist, and all other gods were obliged to obey his orders.

Still, there are several assumptions about what God looked like:

He had a human appearance – on Earth, he appeared as a gray-haired old man with a long, well-groomed beard, wearing a white robe.

He always wore a hoop with a symbol of the sun on his forehead.

The old man had very thick and gray eyebrows.

Rod planted a World Tree (Oak) that covered the upper world with its crown, penetrated the earthly world with its trunk, and extended deep into the underground world with its roots.

The animal symbols of Rod are a Duck and a Pike – symbols of the creation of the world.

God gave birth to many daughters and sons. These gods are called the Higher Ones. He has a female hypostasis (ипостась), which is simultaneously his daughter. This is the goddess Lada, symbolizing all women-mothers and the Earth. The goddess Lada emerged from the breath of the Genus; in her earthly form, she flew around the world as the Bird of the Nea, conveying the will of Rod to all living beings. Of the sons of the Forefather, the most renowned and powerful is Svarog, the great god who completed the creation of the world.