Chambers's Edinburgh Journal, No. 445

About seventy-five years ago, there was at Charleston, in South Carolina, a family consisting of several members. It belonged to the middle class—that is to say, contained barristers, bankers, merchants, solicitors, and so on—all of them animated, at least so far as appears, by a high sense of honour and integrity. But noble sentiments are no certain guarantee against poverty. One of the members of the family in question became embarrassed, borrowed L.1000 of one of his relatives, but was soon after seized with paralysis, and, having kept his bed five years, died, leaving behind him a widow with several children. He could bequeath them no property, instead of which they received as their inheritance high principles, and a strong affection for the memory of their father. The widow also was, in this respect, perfectly in harmony with her sons. By dint, therefore, of prudence, industry, and economy, they amassed among them the sum of L.400, which they rigidly appropriated to the repayment of a part of their father's debt. The old man had, indeed, called them together around his death-bed, and told them that, instead of a fortune, he left them a duty to perform; and that if it could not be accomplished in one generation, it must be handed down from father to son, until the descendants of the B–s had paid every farthing to the descendants of the S–s.

While matters stood in this predicament, the creditor part of the family removed to England, and the debtors remained at Charleston, struggling with difficulties and embarrassments, which not only disabled them from paying the paternal debt, but kept them perpetually in honourable poverty. Of course, the wish to pay in such minds survived the ability. It would have been to them an enjoyment of a high order to hunt out their relatives in England, and place in their hands the owing L.600. This pleasure, which they were destined never to taste, often formed the subject of conversation around their fireside; and the children, as they grew up, were initiated into the mystery of the L.600.

But that generation passed away, and another succeeded to the liability; not that there existed any liability in law, for though a deed had been executed, it had lapsed in the course of time, so that there was really no obligation but that which was the strongest of all—an uneradicable sense of right. Often and often did the B–s of Charleston meet and consult together on this famous debt, which every one wished, but no one could afford, to pay. The sons were married, and had children whom it was incumbent on them to support; the daughters had married, too, but their husbands possibly did not acquire with their wives the chivalrous sense of duty which possessed the breast of every member, male and female, of the B. family, and inspired them with a wish to do justice when fortune permitted.

It would be infinitely agreeable to collect and peruse the letters and records of consultations which passed or took place between the members of this family on the subject of the L.600. These documents would form the materials of one of the most delightful romances in the world—the romance of honour, which never dies in some families, but is transmitted from generation to generation like a treasure above all price. When this brief notice is read in Charleston, it may possibly lead to the collection of these materials, which, with the proper names of all the persons engaged, should, we think, be laid before the world as a pleasing record of hereditary nobility of sentiment.

After the lapse of many years, a widow and her three nephews found themselves in possession of the necessary means for paying the family debt. Three-quarters of a century had elapsed. The children and the children's children of the original borrower had passed away; but the honour of the B. family had been transmitted intact to the fourth generation, and a search was immediately commenced to discover the creditors in England. This, however, as may well be supposed, was no easy task. The members of the S. family had multiplied and separated, married and intermarried, become poor and wealthy, distinguished and obscure by turns, changed their topographical as well as their social position, and disappeared entirely from the spot they had occupied on their first arrival from America.

But honour is indefatigable, and by degrees a letter reached a person in Kensington, who happened to possess some knowledge of a lady of the S. family, married to a solicitor practising with great success and distinction in London. When the letter came to hand, she at first doubted whether it might not be a sort of grave hoax, intended to excite expectation for the pleasure of witnessing its disappointment. However, the English solicitor, accustomed to the incidents of life, thought there would at least be no harm in replying to the letter from Charleston, and discovering in this way the real state of the affair.

Some delay necessarily occurred, especially as the B. family in America were old world sort of people, accustomed to transact business slowly and methodically, and with due attention to the minutest points. But at length a reply came, in which the writer observed, that if a deed of release were drawn up, signed by all the parties concerned in England, and transmitted to America, the L.600 should immediately be forwarded for distribution among the members of the S. family. Some demur now arose. Some of the persons concerned growing prudent as the chances of recovering the money appeared to multiply, thought it would be wrong to send the deed of release before the money had been received. But the solicitor had not learned, in the practice of his profession, to form so low an estimate of human nature. He considered confidence in this case to be synonymous with prudence, and at anyrate resolved to take upon himself the entire responsibility of complying with the wishes of the Americans. He accordingly drew up the necessary document, got it signed by as many as participated in his views, and sent it across the Atlantic, without the slightest doubt or hesitation. There had been something in the rough, blunt honesty of Mr B–'s letter that inspired in the man of law the utmost reliance on his faith, though during the interval which elapsed between the transmission of the deed and the reception of an answer from the States, several of his friends exhibited a disposition to make themselves merry at the expense of his chivalry. But when we consider all the particulars of the case, we can hardly fail to perceive that he ran no risk whatever; for even if the debt had not legally lapsed, the people who had retained it in their memory through three generations—who had from father to son practised strict economy in order to relieve themselves from the burden—who had, with much difficulty and some expense, sought out the heirs of their creditor in a distant country, could scarcely be suspected of any inclination to finish off with a fraud at last.

Still, if there was honour on one side, there was enlarged confidence on the other; and in the course of a few months, the American mail brought to London the famous L.600 due since before the War of Independence. The business now was to divide and distribute it. Of course, each of the creditors was loud in expressions of admiration of the honour of the B. family, whose representative, while forwarding the money, asked with much simplicity to have a few old English newspapers sent out to him by way of acknowledgment. For his own part, however, he experienced a strong desire to behold some of the persons to whom he had thus paid a debt of the last century; and he gave a warm and pressing invitation to any of them, to come out and stay as long as they thought proper at his house in Charleston. Had the invitation been accepted, we cannot doubt that Brother Jonathan would have acted as hospitably in the character of host as he behaved honourably in that of debtor. It would have been a pleasure, we might indeed say a distinction, to live under the same roof with such a man, whose very name carries us back to the primitive times of the colony, when Charleston was a city of the British Empire, and English laws, manners, habits, and feelings regulated the proceedings and relations of its inhabitants. It is to be hoped, therefore, that the London solicitor will some day drop in quietly upon his friend in Charleston, to smoke a cigar, and discuss old times with him. He will in that case probably fancy himself chatting with a contemporary of Rip Van Winkle. Doubtless there are thousands of such men in the States, where frequently everything that is estimable in the English character is cultivated with assiduity.

How the property was distributed among the S. family in England, we need not say. Each surviving individual had his or her share. The solicitor was only connected with them by marriage; but with good old English ideas of uprightness and integrity, he was fully able to appreciate the Charleston lawyer's sentiments. He would have done exactly the same himself under similar circumstances; and therefore, had the sum been tens of thousands instead of hundreds, it could not be said to have fallen into bad hands. Whether the transaction above noticed has led or not to a continued correspondence between the families, we are unable to say; but we think the creditors in England would naturally have felt a pleasure in exchanging intelligence from time to time with their worthy debtors in Charleston. These things, however, are private, and therefore we do not intend to trench upon them.

THE PARLOUR AQUARIUM

It is not many years since Mr Ward first drew the attention of botanists to the cultivation of plants in closely-glazed cases; but the most sanguine dreams of the discoverer could not then have foretold the many useful purposes to which the Wardian Case has become applicable, nor the important influence which it was destined to obtain in promoting the pleasant pursuits of gardening and botany. The Wardian Case has been instrumental in diffusing a love of these pursuits among all classes of society. It has opened up to those whose pursuits confine them within the limits of the city's smoke-cloud, a means whereby they may obtain 'a peep at nature, if they can no more.' Far removed from green fields and leafy woods, they may, for instance, enjoy their leisure mornings in watching one of the most beautiful phenomena of vegetable development—the evolution of the circinate fronds of the fern; a plant in every respect associated with elegance and beauty. This kind of gardening has, therefore, become of late years one of the most fashionable, while at the same time one of the most pleasant sources of domestic amusement.

An interesting companion to the Wardian Case has lately been presented in the Aquatic Plant Case, or Parlour Aquarium, due to the ingenuity of Mr Warington, and which has for its object, as its name indicates, the cultivation of aquatic or water plants. It may be described as a combination of the Wardian Case and the gold-fish globe, the object being to illustrate the mutual dependence of animal and vegetable life. Mr Warington has lately detailed his experiments. 'The small gold-fish were placed in a glass-receiver of about twelve gallons' capacity, having a cover of thin muslin stretched over a stout copper wire, bent into a circle, placed over its mouth, so as to exclude as much as possible the sooty dust of the London atmosphere, without, at the same time, impeding the free passage of the atmospheric air. This receiver was about half-filled with ordinary spring-water, and supplied at the bottom with sand and mud, together with loose stones of limestone tufa from Matlock, and of sandstone: these were arranged so that the fish could get below.... A small plant of Vallisneria spiralis was introduced, its roots being inserted in the mud and sand, and covered by one of the loose stones, so as to retain the plant in its position.... The materials being thus arranged, all appeared to go on well for a short time, until circumstances occurred which indicated that another and very material agent was required to perfect the adjustment.' The decaying leaves of the vallisneria produced a slime which began to affect the fish injuriously: this it was necessary to get quit of. Mr Warington introduced five or six snails (Limnea stagnalis), 'which soon removed the nuisance, and restored the fish to a healthy state; thus perfecting the balance between the animal and vegetable inhabitants, and enabling both to perform their functions with health and energy. So luxuriant was the growth of the vallisneria under these circumstances, that by the autumn the one solitary plant originally introduced had thrown out very numerous offshoots and suckers, thus multiplying to the extent of upwards of thirty-five strong plants, and these threw up their long spiral flower-stems in all directions, so that at one time more than forty blossoms were counted lying on the surface of the water. The fish have been lively, bright in colour, and appear very healthy; and the snails also—judging from the enormous quantities of gelatinous masses of eggs which they have deposited on all parts of the receiver, as well as on the fragments of stone—appear to thrive wonderfully, affording a large quantity of food to the fish in the form of the young snails, which are devoured as soon as they exhibit signs of vitality and locomotion, and before their shell has become hardened.'

In remarking upon the result of his experiments, Mr Warington observes: 'Thus we have that admirable balance sustained between the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and that in a liquid element. The fish, in its respiration, consumes the oxygen held in solution by the water as atmospheric air, furnishes carbonic acid, feeds on the insects and young snails, and excretes material well adapted as a rich food to the plant, and well fitted for its luxuriant growth. The plant, by its respiration, consumes the carbonic acid produced by the fish, appropriating the carbon to the construction of its tissues and fibres, and liberates the oxygen in its gaseous state to sustain the healthy functions of the animal life; at the same time that it feeds on the rejected matter, which has fulfilled its purposes in the nourishment of the fish and snail, and preserves the water constantly in a clean and healthy condition. While the slimy snail, finding its proper nutriment in the decomposing vegetable matter and minute confervoid growth, prevents their accumulation by removing them; and by its vital powers converts what would otherwise act as a poison into a rich and fruitful nutriment, again to constitute a pabulum for the vegetable growth, while it also acts the important part of a purveyor to its finny neighbours.'[5 - Quarterly Journal of the Chemical Society, iii, 52.] This perfect adjustment in the economy of the animal and vegetable kingdoms, whereby the vital functions of each are permanently maintained, is one of the most beautiful phenomena of organic nature.

The Parlour Aquarium affords valuable, we might say invaluable, facilities to the naturalist in the prosecution of his researches. The botanist can now conveniently watch the development of aquatic plants under conditions not unnatural, throughout the entire period of their existence, from their germination to the production of flowers and the perfection of seeds; and we are in hopes that much of the obscurity that invests many aquatic vegetables will in consequence be cleared up. The zoologist is perhaps even more indebted to the invention. The habits, not only of the fishes, but of the mollusca, can be accurately studied under natural conditions, and many important facts of their history ascertained and illustrated. The water-beetles and other aquatic insects will also come in for a share of attention.

In concluding his paper in the Garden Companion (i. p. 7), Mr Warington states, that he is at present attempting a similar arrangement with a confined portion of sea-water, employing some of the green sea-weeds as the vegetable members of the circle, and the common winkle or whelk to represent the water-snails. In a Report of the Yorkshire Naturalist's Club, November 5, 1851,[6 - Naturalist, vol. i. 239.] we observe it stated, that Mr Charlesworth read an extract from a letter from a gentleman in America, detailing some successful experiments on keeping marine molluscs alive in sea-water for months; but our inquiries have not been successful in eliciting any further information on the subject.

Experiments of our own have led to the conclusion, that some families of aquatic plants are altogether unsuitable for the Parlour Aquarium—such as, potamogeton, chara, &c., which very soon communicate a putrescent odour to the water in which they are grown, rendering it highly disagreeable in a sitting-room.

A WEDDING DINNER

The English are often reproached with love of good cheer, and certainly if foreigners were to judge of us from the manner in which we celebrate our Christmas, we cannot wonder at their supposing 'biftik' to be necessary to our happiness. But high feasting has not in any age been confined to the English, and perhaps the following account, translated from an old chronicle, of a wedding-dinner given by the Milanese, in 1336, to our Duke of Clarence, son of Edward III., may prove not unamusing or unsuggestive.

Lionel of Antwerp, Duke of Clarence, was the widower of Elizabeth of Ulster, and his second wife, Zolante, was the sister of Giovanni Galeazzo Visconti, Duke of Milan. The latter nuptials were celebrated at Milan with great pomp. The most illustrious personages were invited from every part of Europe; tournaments, balls, and other diversions, occupied the guests, who were all furnished with splendid apartments, till the whole company being assembled, Giovanni Galeazzo conducted the newly-married couple from the church to his palace. In one immense hall were laid out a hundred tables for the most distinguished guests, including the mightiest princes in Italy, the most beautiful women, and the most celebrated characters of the age; among whom we must not omit to mention Francesco Petrarca. Other tables were placed in the adjoining apartments. Seneschals, in the most sumptuous dresses, brought in the massive dishes of gold and silver. The cup-bearers performed their duties on horseback, galloping round the hall and handing the choicest wines in costly vases of gold, silver, or crystal. This custom of servants waiting at table on horseback appears singular in our time, but it serves to give an idea of the splendour of other days and the enormous size of the apartments. It also tends to explain why most of the noble mansions still extant from the time of which we speak, instead of a staircase, have a gradual ascent of bricks, generally leading to a hall of large dimensions. And frequently we see evident tokens that flights of steps have been substituted in later times.

The banquet consisted of eighteen courses; and between each course presents of various kinds were offered to the bridegroom, or distributed by him; so that before the dinner had ended, Lionel had presented every individual around him with some article of value, besides 600 richly embroidered garments which he had given to the mimes and players engaged for the occasion.

Here follows a formal account of the dinner, but we must economise our space. The first course consisted of young pigs, gilded, with flames issuing from their mouths; the second, of hares and pike, likewise gilded; the third, of gilded veal and trout; the fourth, of partridges, quails, and fish, all gilded; the fifth, of ducks, small birds, and fish, all gilded; the sixth, of beef, capons with garlic-sauce, and sturgeon; the seventh, of veal and capons with lemon-sauce; the eighth, of beef-pies, with cheese and sugar, and eel-pies with sugar and spices; the ninth, of meats, fowl and fish in jelly (potted, we presume); the tenth, of gilded meats and lamprey; the eleventh, of roast kid, birds, and fish; the twelfth, of hares and venison, and fish with vinegar and sugar; the thirteenth, of beef and deer, with lemon and sugar; the fourteenth, of fowls, capons, and tench, covered with red and green foil; the fifteenth, of pigeons, small birds, beans, salt tongues, and carp; the sixteenth, of rabbits, peacocks, and eels roasted with lemon; the seventeenth, of sour milk and cheese; and the eighteenth, of fruits of the rarest and most expensive kinds.

At each of these courses the duke received a separate gift—beginning with a pair of leopards, with velvet collars and gilded buckles. Then followed numberless braces of pointers, greyhounds, setters, and falcons, all with trappings and ornaments of silk, gold, and pearls; dozens of breastplates, helmets, lances, shields, saddles, and complete suits of armour, enriched with silver, gold, and velvet; numerous pieces of cloth of gold and satin; horses by half-dozens, with saddles and trappings highly ornamented; twelve beautiful milk-white oxen; 'a vest and cowl embroidered with pearls, representing various flowers; a baronial mantle and cowl lined with ermine, and richly embroidered with pearls; a large ewer of massive silver, four waistbands of wrought silver (now called filigrane); a clump of diamonds and rubies, with a pearl of immense value in the centre; and a variety of specimens of the choicest wines and most elegant confectionary.'

In those times, there was little refinement of taste, and the culinary art was probably in its infancy. Hence we find the dishes in quality and number rather suited to satisfy the appetites of huntsmen than the delicate palate of a courtier of our day. Sugar and spices were used in profusion, perhaps because they were scarce and expensive, rather than on account of their flavour. Fowls were coloured red or green; while meat, and such other solid eatables as could only be boiled or roasted, were gilt all over. The expense of such an entertainment must have been immense; and when we add, that the value of most of the gifts was vastly greater than at present, and that, besides the presents to the bridegroom, Giovanni Galeazzo gave away 150 beautiful horses, and his kinsman, Bernabo, jewels and golden coins to a large amount, the whole sum disbursed on this occasion would appear so enormous as to make one doubt whether a petty sovereign could really afford such ostentatious prodigality. But when we consider that the flourishing state of the commerce of Italy attracted thither all the wealth of Europe, we are no longer surprised at an expenditure which, however great, might at that time have been borne not by a reigning duke of Milan or Florence alone, but even by many citizens of the various Italian republics.

During the repast, an innumerable crowd of jesters, mimes, and trick-players of all sorts, amused the company with their gambols; and such was the noise produced by trumpets, drums, and other martial instruments, by the vociferation of the performers and the applause of the spectators, that no single voice could be heard; and a contemporary historian compares it to the wild roar of a tempestuous sea.

SAVINGS-BANKS IN RUSSIA

Until the year 1825, no kind of savings-bank existed in Russia. The farmers and peasants, residing for the most part in remote and scattered habitations, were accustomed to keep their little store of money in common earthen-pots buried in the ground, whence it was not unfrequently stolen. It also often happened that, owing to the sudden illness or death of the owner, the place of concealment was unknown to any one; thus the savings were lost, and much family trouble and difficulty arose. In March 1825, a truly patriotic young merchant, Frederick Hagedom, junior, of Libau, in Courland, perceived the advantage of savings-banks in other countries of Europe, and the disadvantages of the system pursued by his poor countrymen. He resolved, therefore, to institute a savings-bank in Libau. The patronage of the governor-general was obtained, and one of the magistrates of the town appointed superintendent: Frederick Hagedom and two other gentlemen were chosen directors. The public of the town soon testified their approbation of the good work, by bringing in their silver rubles and copper kopecks at the appointed hours—namely, from five to seven every Saturday evening, and at two periods of the year daily—from the 1st to the 12th of June and December. The peasants, however, did not display the same alacrity and confidence as indeed was to be expected. Their kind benefactor perceiving this, wrote and circulated a short pamphlet in the Lettish language of the country, explaining the intention, object, and advantages of the new savings-bank. This convinced the ignorant country-people that their old way of keeping their money, even if safe, was not profitable. The pastors of the village churches also took occasion to speak to their people on the subject, being persuaded, like the benevolent founders of the savings-bank, that it was a plan which could not fail to improve the moral and religious character of the peasantry. These exertions did not fail to produce the desired effect.

To accommodate the country-people who came from a distance, it was soon found advisable to open the savings-bank for their attendance daily from twelve to one—the Saturday evenings being reserved for the inhabitants of the town. All classes now became desirous of taking advantage of the savings-bank, and brought in silver rubles and kopecks, instead of keeping them hoarded and useless.

A sum under five rubles receives no interest—is merely saved and kept—which is, however, no slight benefit to the poor peasant. Above that sum, 4 percent, interest is paid. The owner is at liberty to withdraw the principal at will. The tables published in 1845, after twenty years' existence, afford a most satisfactory and interesting result. The increase of members who partake of the benefits has steadily advanced. One-third of the number are inhabitants of Libau, the remainder are from the country. A very important gain was also perceived to arise from the system: a large portion of the silver rubles and Albert-dollars paid in, had evidently been for many years kept entirely out of circulation, buried in pots in the earth, and consequently in such a condition, that it was often necessary to have the coin carefully cleaned, before it was fit to be sent out into circulation again. Besides the pecuniary advantage, the improvement in the character of the people has been remarkable. The savings-bank has strengthened in a singular degree the love of order, industry, and temperance. How many cheerful hopes and anticipations are connected with savings! It has been ascertained, both in England and France, that since the establishment of savings-banks in those countries, no criminal has ever been found to have been a member of one. How true a benefactor to his country has the young merchant Hagedom proved himself to be! May he live long to direct the savings-bank of his native town of Libau! And, to conclude with the words of the last report of the institution: 'May a gracious Providence continue to prosper this first and oldest institution of the kind in the empire of Russia, and preserve this institution, so highly beneficial to the economical and moral state of the people, in its full prosperity, to future generations!'[7 - Communicated by a lady, as translated from a pamphlet published in Russia.]

CALORIC SHIPS

The idea of substituting a new and superior motive-power for steam will no doubt strike many minds as extravagant, if not chimerical. We have been so accustomed to regard steam-power as the ne plus ultra of attainment in subjecting the modified forces of nature to the service of man, that a discovery which promises to supersede this agency will have to contend with the most formidable preconceptions as well as with gigantic interests. Nevertheless, it may now be predicted with confidence, that we are on the eve of another great revolution, produced by the application of an agent more economical and incalculably safer than steam. A few years hence we shall hear of the 'wonders of caloric' instead of the 'wonders of steam.' To the question: 'How did you cross the Atlantic?' the reply will be: 'By caloric of course!' On Saturday, I visited the manufactory, and had the privilege of inspecting Ericsson's caloric engine of 60 horse-power, while it was in operation. It consists of two pairs of cylinders, the working pistons of which are 72 inches in diameter. Its great peculiarities consist in its very large cylinders and pistons, working with very low pressure, and in the absence of boilers or heaters, there being no other fires employed than those in small grates under the bottoms of the working cylinders. During the eight months that this test-engine has been in operation, not a cent has been expended for repairs or accidents. The leading principle of the calorie engine consists in producing motive-power by the employment of the expansive force of atmospheric air instead of that of steam; the force being produced by compression of the air in one part of the machine, and by its dilatation by the application of heat in another part. This dilatation, however, is not effected by continuous application of combustibles, but by a peculiar process of transfer, by which the caloric is made to operate over and over again—namely, the heat of the air escaping from the working cylinder at each successive stroke of the engine, is transferred to the cold compressed air, entering the same; so that, in fact, a continued application of fuel is only necessary in order to make good the losses of heat occasioned by the unavoidable eradiation of the heated parts of the machine. The obvious advantages of this great improvement are the great saving of fuel and labour in the management of the engine, and its perfect safety. A ship carrying the amount of coal that the Atlantic steamers now take for a single trip, could cross and recross the Atlantic twice without taking in coal; and the voyage to China or to California could be easily accomplished by a caloric ship without the necessity of stopping at any port to take in fuel. Anthracite coal being far the best fuel for this new engine, we shall no longer have to purchase bituminous coal in England for return-trips. On the contrary, England will find it advantageous to come to us for our anthracite. A slow radiating fire without flame is what is required, and this is best supplied by our anthracite. The Ericsson will be ready for sea by October next, and her owners intend to take passengers at a reduced price, in consequence of the reduced expenses under the new principle.—Boston Transcript.

VIOLETS:

SENT IN A TINY BOX

Let them lie—ah, let them lie!
Plucked flowers—dead to-morrow;
Lift the lid up quietly,
As you'd lift the mystery
Of a buried sorrow.

Let them lie—the fragrant things,
All their souls thus giving;
Let no breeze's ambient wings
And no useless water-springs
Mock them into living.

They have lived—they live no more;
Nothing can requite them
For the gentle life they bore,
And up-yielded in full store
While it did delight them.

Yet, I ween, flower-corses fair!
'Twas a joyful yielding,
Like some soul heroic, rare,
That leaps bodiless forth in air
For its loved one's shielding.

Surely, ye were glad to die
In the hand that slew ye,
Glad to leave the open sky,
And the airs that wandered by,
And the bees that knew ye;

Giving up a small earth-place
And a day of blooming,
Here to lie in narrow space,
Smiling in this smileless face
With such sweet perfuming.