Birds and Nature Vol. 9 No. 2 [February 1901]

Fish culture never became a serious occupation among the Romans. It was a pastime, one of the many directions which their senseless luxury took rather than a carefully directed effort to stock ponds and rear fish for food, or as a means of nature study. The immense ponds were stocked with rare fish in preference to useful varieties. Next to the rare species those that could be tamed were in favor. A qualification of the above statements should be made probably, in favor of the Romans who lived during the early Republican period of whom Columella, a Roman writer, has the following to say in his book entitled De Re Rustica: “The descendants of Romulus, although they were country folk, took great pains in having upon their farms a sort of abundance of everything which the inhabitants of the city are wont to enjoy. To this end they did not rest contented with stocking with fish the ponds that had been made for this purpose, but in their foresight went to the extent of supplying the ponds formed by nature with the spawn of fish. By this means the lakes Velinus and Sabitinus, and likewise Vulsmensis and Ciminus have furnished in great abundance not only catfish and goldfish, but also all the other varieties of fish which flourish in fresh water.” Such were the practices of the Roman country folk in early times, but, strange as it may seem in view of the extravagance of which the fish pond became the object in later times, no measures were taken to secure the reproduction and free development of staple food fishes.

It is well known that the ancients had a remarkable predilection for fish as a food. The principal luxury of the Roman banquets consisted of fish, and the poets speak of sumptuous tables spread with them exclusively. In the period between the taking of Carthage and the reign of Vespasian, this taste became a perfect passion, and for its gratification the senators and patricians, enriched by the spoils of Asia and Africa, incurred the most foolish expense. Thus Licinius Murena, Quintus Hortensius and Lucius Philippus, spent millions on their fish ponds and in stocking them with rare species. Lucullus was by far the most extravagant of these fish fanciers. A fish pond was to him very much what the yacht is to the modern millionaire. It is his name that we find so frequently in Cicero’s letters, when he and his set come in for several cleverly-framed rebukes. “No matter,” says Cicero, “about the state, if only their fish-ponds escape harm.” It was Lucullus who had a channel cut through a mountain at an immense outlay of money, in order to let salt water into his fish-ponds. We are told by Varro that one Hirrius had an income of nearly $700,000 from his Roman real estate, and spent the whole amount on his fish-ponds. Some of these fish-ponds were very elaborate. They were constructed with many compartments, in which they kept the different varieties. The care of these ponds, and the feeding of the animals, required a large force of trained men and assistants who, we can infer, learned a great deal about the habits of fishes, their favorite food, and how to propagate them, but their information was never reduced to anything like a science.

That foolish extravagance of the Roman nobles produced but two results, the less of which was the impoverishment of some of Rome’s wealthiest families; the other and more unfortunate result was the destruction of the fishes along the Mediterranean Sea.

Probably the sole contribution to fish-culture resulting from all this extravagance, was the introduction of gold-fish into an artificial habitat and providing them shell-fish for nourishment.

In conclusion, I will note some of the forms that were most popular among the Romans, either for table use or for the aquarium. For these we are indebted to a mosaic discovered in Pompeii. They are formed as they were seen by the artist in an aquarium, but in the mosaic they are supposed to be seen as if in the sea. The varieties found are: The grey mullet, electric ray, gilt-head, muraena, scorpion fish, crawfish, devil-fish, dog-fish, red-mullet, bass, spinola, red gumara, nautis prawn, and from another mosaic may be added the soft prawn, squid and some other species whose English names I do not know.

    T. Louis Comparette.

CINNAMON

(Cinnamomum cassia blume.)

“Sinament and ginger, nutmegs and cloves,
And that gave me my jolly red nose.”

    – Ravenscroft, Deuteromela, Song 7 (1609).
The cinnamons of the market are the inner barks obtained from trees of tropical countries and islands. The plants are quite ornamental; twenty to forty feet high; smooth, enduring, green, simple and entire leaves. The flowers are small and very insignificant in appearance.

Cinnamon is an old-time, highly-priced spice. It is mentioned in the herb book of the Chinese emperor Schen-nung (2700 B. C.), where it is described under the name Kwei. From China it was introduced into Egypt about 1600 or 1500 B. C. The cinnamon and cassia mentioned in the Bible were introduced by the Phoenicians. About 400 or 300 B. C. cinnamon still belonged to the rarities of the market and little was known regarding its origin and cultivation. Plinius stated that it was not a native of Arabia, but does not explain what its native country was. About the fourth century of our era cinnamon found its way into Turkey and Asia Minor, where it was employed as incense in church ceremonies. In the sixth century Trallianus recommended the still very expensive spice for medicinal purposes. During the tenth century the price of this article became much reduced and it was used as a spice, principally in the preparation of fish meats. In England it was used in veterinary practice. Although China is undoubtedly the home of the cinnamons they were apparently entirely overlooked by Marco Polo, the eminent traveler and historian, who visited the greater part of China. Oil of cinnamon was prepared as early as 1540.

There are several varieties of cinnamon upon the market. Cassia cinnamon, which is a Chinese variety, is obtained from Cinnamomum cassia. The bark is quite thick and contains only a small amount of volatile or ethereal oil. It is of little value yet it is exported on a large scale. It forms the cheap cinnamon of the market. There are other Chinese cinnamons of good quality which constitute the principal commercial article. The Saigon cinnamon is by far the best article. It also is Chinese, obtained from an undetermined species. It is the strongest and spiciest of the cinnamons and it is the only variety official in the United States Pharmacopoeia. The bark is of medium thickness, deep reddish brown and rich in volatile oil. The Ceylon cinnamon, from India, is noted for the delicacy of its flavor, but it contains comparatively little volatile oil. The bark is very thin and of a lighter brown color than that of the Saigon cinnamon.

Nearly all of the cinnamon of the market is obtained from cultivated plants. There are large plantations in southeastern China, Cochin-China, India, Sunda islands, Sumatra, Java and other tropical countries and islands. In many instances little or nothing is known regarding the cultivation, collecting and curing of cinnamons. As a rule the trees are pruned for convenience in collecting the bark. In the better-grade cinnamons the bark from the younger twigs only (1½ to 2 years old) is collected. This is removed in quills, the outer corky inert layers being discarded and dried. As the drying proceeds the smaller quills are telescoped into the larger for convenience in handling, packing and shipping. The color changes to a reddish brown and the aroma increases. Two crops are collected annually; one, the principal crop, in May and June; the second from November to January. The blossoms are formed during May and June and the fruit ripens in January; these periods correspond to the periods of collecting. The older, dry, corky bark should not be collected, as it contains little volatile oil. In all carefully prepared cinnamons the outer bark layers are removed by scraping.

Cinnamon is quite frequently adulterated; poor qualities are substituted for good qualities or added to the better qualities. This applies especially to ground cinnamon.

Cinnamon is one of the richest of the spices. Its flavor is quite universally liked. It is employed in pies and other pastry, in drinks, in the preparation of hair oils and hair tonics, in confectionery, with pickles, etc., etc. Medicinally it is employed as a corrective, in dysentery and in coughs. The excessive consumption of spices, cinnamon included, is a pernicious practice, as may be gathered from the opening quotation from Ravenscroft. Spices cause pathological changes in stomach, the liver and other glandular organs in particular. Quite frequently those addicted to the use of spices are also addicted to the use of alcoholic drinks, and it is more than likely that the “jolly red nose” referred to was caused by the alcoholic stimulants rather than the spices.

The not fully matured flowers are known as cassia buds and are used as a spice. They are not unlike cloves in appearance. The roots of the various cinnamon trees yield camphor. The leaves yield volatile oil and the seeds a faintly aromatic fat.

    Albert Schneider.

AT DUSK

Dark shadows fall upon the earth,
Cool vapors rise in air,
The screech-owl in the copse is heard,
The bees are freed from care.

The butterfly has closed its wings,
The lark has gone to rest;
The nightingale in tree-top sings;
To sleep the crow thinks best.

The lightning bug glows in the brake;
The cricket chirps beneath the stone;
The whip poor will is yet awake,
The bull-frog calls in deep, low tone.

The flowers droop their weary heads,
The leaves are nodding in the breeze;
Young birdlings sleep in downy beds;
Squirrels are resting in the trees.

The bats are flying low and high;
The fishes rest in waters deep.
The red has gone from western sky,
All nature soon will be asleep.

    – Albert Schneider.