Island Life; Or, The Phenomena and Causes of Insular Faunas and Floras

The indications now given of the scope and purpose of the present volume renders it evident that, before we can proceed to the discussion of the remarkable phenomena presented by insular faunas and floras, and the complex causes which have produced them, we must go through a series of preliminary studies, adapted to give us a command of the more important facts and principles on which the solution of such problems depends. The succeeding eight chapters will therefore be devoted to the explanation of the mode of distribution, variation, modification, and dispersal, of species and groups, illustrated by facts and examples; of the true nature of geological change as affecting continents and islands; of changes of climate, their nature, causes, and effects; of the duration of geological time and the rate of organic development.

CHAPTER II

THE ELEMENTARY FACTS OF DISTRIBUTION

Importance of Locality as an essential character of Species—Areas of Distribution—Extent and Limitations of Specific Areas—Specific range of Birds—Generic Areas—Separate and overlapping areas—The species of Tits as illustrating Areas of Distribution—The distribution of the species of Jays—Discontinuous generic areas—Peculiarities of generic and family distribution—General features of overlapping and discontinuous areas—Restricted areas of Families—The distribution of Orders.

So long as it was believed that the several species of animals and plants were "special creations," and had been formed expressly to inhabit the countries in which they are now found, their habitat was an ultimate fact which required no explanation. It was assumed that every animal was exactly adapted to the climate and surroundings amid which it lived, and that the only, or, at all events, the chief reason why it did not inhabit another country was, that the climate or general conditions of that country were not suitable to it, but in what the unsuitability consisted we could rarely hope to discover. Hence the exact locality of any species was not thought of much importance from a scientific point of view, and the idea that anything could be learnt by a comparative study of different floras and faunas never entered the minds of the older naturalists.

But so soon as the theory of evolution came to be generally adopted, and it was seen that each animal could only have come into existence in some area where ancestral forms closely allied to it already lived, a real and important relation was established between an animal and its native country, and a new set of problems at once sprang into existence. From the old point of view the diversities of animal life in the separate continents, even where physical conditions were almost identical, was the fact that excited astonishment; but seen by the light of the evolution theory, it is the resemblances rather than the diversities in these distant continents and islands that are most difficult to explain. It thus comes to be admitted that a knowledge of the exact area occupied by a species or a group is a real portion of its natural history, of as much importance as its habits, its structure, or its affinities; and that we can never arrive at any trustworthy conclusions as to how the present state of the organic world was brought about, until we have ascertained with some accuracy the general laws of the distribution of living things over the earth's surface.

Areas of Distribution.—Every species of animal has a certain area of distribution to which, as a rule, it is permanently confined, although, no doubt, the limits of its range fluctuate somewhat from year to year, and in some exceptional cases may be considerably altered in a few years or centuries. Each species is moreover usually limited to one continuous area, over the whole of which it is more or less frequently to be met with, but there are many apparent and some real exceptions to this rule. Some animals are so adapted to certain kinds of country—as to forests or marshes, mountains or deserts—that they cannot, permanently, live elsewhere. These may be found scattered over a wide area in suitable spots only, but can hardly on that account be said to have several distinct areas of distribution. As an example we may name the chamois, which lives only on high mountains, but is found in the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Carpathians, in some of the Greek mountains and the Caucasus. The variable hare is another and more remarkable case, being found all over Northern Europe and Asia beyond lat. 55°, and also in Scotland and Ireland. In central Europe it is unknown till we come to the Alps, the Pyrenees, and the Caucasus, where it again appears. This is one of the best cases known of the discontinuous distribution of a species, there being a gap of about a thousand miles between its southern limits in Russia, and its reappearance in the Alps. There are of course numerous instances in which species occur in two or more islands, or in an island and continent, and are thus rendered discontinuous by the sea, but these involve questions of changes in sea and land which we shall have to consider further on. Other cases are believed to exist of still wider separation of a species, as with the marsh titmice and the reed buntings of Europe and Japan, where similar forms are found in the extreme localities, while distinct varieties or sub-species, inhabit the intervening districts.

Extent and Limitations of Specific Areas.—Leaving for the present these cases of want of continuity in a species, we find the most wide difference between the extent of country occupied, varying in fact from a few square miles to almost the entire land surface of the globe. Among the mammalia, however, the same species seldom inhabits both the old and new worlds, unless they are strictly arctic animals, as the reindeer, the elk, the arctic fox, the glutton, the ermine, and some others. The common wolf of Europe and Northern Asia is thought by many naturalists to be identical with the variously coloured wolves of North America extending from the Arctic Ocean to Mexico, in which case this will have perhaps the widest range of any species of mammal. Little doubt exists as to the identity of the brown bears and the beavers of Europe and North America; but all these species range up to the arctic circle, and there is no example of a mammal universally admitted to be identical yet confined to the temperate zones of the two hemispheres. Among the undisputed species of mammalia the leopard has an enormous range, extending all over Africa and South Asia to Borneo and the east of China, and thus having probably the widest range of any known mammal. The winged mammalia have not usually very wide ranges, there being only one bat common to the Old and New Worlds. This is a British species, Vesperugo serotinus, which is found over the larger part of North America, Europe and Asia, as far as Pekin, and even extends into tropical Africa, thus rivalling the leopard and the wolf in the extent of country it occupies.

Of very restricted ranges there are many examples, but some of these are subject to doubts as to the distinctness of the species or as to its geographical limits being really known. In Europe we have a distinct species of ibex (Capra Pyrenaica) confined to the Pyrenean mountains, while the true marmot is restricted to the Alpine range. More remarkable is the Pyrenean water-mole (Mygale Pyrenaica), a curious small insectivorous animal found only in a few places in the northern valleys of the Pyrenees. In islands there are many cases of undoubted restriction of species to a small area, but these involve a different question from the range of species on continents where there is no apparent obstacle to their wider extension.

Specific range of Birds.—Among birds we find instances of much wider range of species, which is only what might be expected considering their powers of flight; but, what is very curious, we also find more striking (though perhaps not more frequent) examples of extreme limitation of range among birds than among mammals. Of the former phenomenon perhaps the most remarkable case is that afforded by the osprey or fishing-hawk, which ranges over the greater portion of all the continents, as far as Brazil, South Africa, the Malay Islands, and Tasmania. The barn owl (Strix flammea) has nearly as wide a range, but in this case there is more diversity of opinion as to the specific difference of many of the forms inhabiting remote countries, some of which seem undoubtedly to be distinct. Among passerine birds the raven has probably the widest range, extending from the arctic regions to Texas and New Mexico in America, and to North India and Lake Baikal in Asia; while the little northern willow-wren (Phylloscopus borealis) ranges from arctic Norway across Asia to Alaska, and southward to Ceylon, China, Borneo, and Timor.

Of very restricted continental ranges the best examples in Europe are, the little blue magpie (Cyanopica cooki) confined to the central portions of the Spanish peninsula; and the Italian sparrow found only in Italy and Corsica. In Asia, Palestine affords some examples of birds of very restricted range—a beautiful sun-bird (Nectarinea osea) a peculiar starling (Amydrus tristramii) and some others, being almost or quite confined to the warmer portions of the valley of the Jordan. In the Himalayas there are numbers of birds which have very restricted ranges, but those of the Neilgherries are perhaps better known, several species of laughing thrushes and some other birds being found only on the summits of these mountains. The most wonderfully restricted ranges are, however, to be found among the humming-birds of tropical America. The great volcanic peaks of Chimborazo and Pichincha have each a peculiar species of humming-bird confined to a belt just below the limits of perpetual snow, while the extinct volcano of Chiriqui in Veragua has a species confined to its wooded crater. One of the most strange and beautiful of the humming-birds (Loddigesia mirabilis) was obtained once only, more than forty years ago, near Chachapoyas in the Andes of northern Peru; and though Mr. Gould sent many drawings of the bird to people visiting the district and for many years offered a high reward for a specimen, no other has ever been seen![4 - Since these lines were written, a fine series of specimens of this rare humming-bird has been obtained from the same locality. (See Proc. Zool. Soc. 1881, pp. 827-834.)]

The above details will sufficiently explain what is meant by the "specific area" or range of a species. The very wide and very narrow ranges are exceptional, the great majority of species both of mammals and birds ranging over moderately wide areas, which present no striking contrasts in climate and physical conditions. Thus a large proportion of European birds range over the whole continent in an east and west direction, but considerable numbers are restricted either to the northern or the southern half. In Africa some species range over all the continent south of the desert, while large numbers are restricted to the equatorial forests, or to the upland plains. In North America, if we exclude the tropical and the arctic portions, a considerable number of species range over all the temperate parts of the continent, while still more are restricted to the east, the centre, or the west, respectively.

Generic Areas.—Having thus obtained a tolerably clear idea of the main facts as to the distribution of isolated species, let us now consider those collections of closely-allied species termed genera. What a genus is will be sufficiently understood by a few illustrations. All the different kinds of dogs, jackals, and wolves belong to the dog genus, Canis; the tiger, lion, leopard, jaguar, and the wild cats, to the cat genus, Felis; the blackbird, song-thrush, missel-thrush, fieldfare, and many others to the thrush genus, Turdus; the crow, rook, raven, and jackdaw, to the crow genus, Corvus; but the magpie belongs to another, though closely-allied genus, Pica, distinguished by the different form and proportions of its wings and tail from all the species of the crow genus. The number of species in a genus varies greatly, from one up to several hundreds. The giraffe, the glutton, the walrus, the bearded reedling, the secretary-bird, and many others, have no close allies, and each forms a genus by itself. The beaver genus, Castor, and the camel genus, Camelus, each consist of two species. On the other hand, the deer genus, Cervus has forty species; the mouse and rat genus, Mus more than a hundred species; and there is about the same number of the thrush genus; while among the lower classes of animals genera are often very extensive, the fine genus Papilio, or swallow-tailed butterflies, containing more than four hundred species; and Cicindela, which includes our native tiger beetles, has about the same number. Many genera of shells are very extensive, and one of them—the genus Helix, including the commonest snails, and ranging all over the world—is probably the most extensive in the animal kingdom, numbering about two thousand described species.[5 - Many of these large genera are now subdivided, the divisions being sometimes termed genera, sometimes sub-genera.]

Separate and Overlapping Areas.—The species of a genus are distributed in two ways. Either they occupy distinct areas which do not touch each other and are sometimes widely separated, or they touch and occasionally overlap each other, each species occupying an area of its own which rarely coincides exactly with that of any other species of the same genus. In some cases, when a river, a mountain-chain, or a change of conditions as from pasture to desert or forest, determines the range of species, the areas of two species of the same genus may just meet, one beginning where the other ends; but this is comparatively rare. It occurs, however, in the Amazon valley, where several species of monkeys, birds, and insects come up to the south bank of the river but do not pass it, while allied species come to the north bank, which in like manner forms their boundary. As examples we may mention that one of the Saki monkeys (Pithecia monachus?) comes up to the south bank of the Upper Amazon, while immediately we cross over to the north bank we find another species (Pithecia rufibarbata?). Among birds we have the green jacamar (Galbula viridis), abundant on the north bank of the Lower Amazon, while on the south bank we have two allied species (Galbula rufoviridis and G. cyaneicollis); and among insects we have at Santarem on the south bank of the Amazon, the beautiful blue butterfly, Callithea sapphira, while almost opposite to it, at Monte-alegre, an allied species, Callithea Leprieuri is alone found. Perhaps the most interesting and best known case of a series of allied species, whose ranges are separate but conterminous, is that of the beautiful South American wading birds, called trumpeters, and forming the genus Psophia. There are five species, all found in the Amazon valley, but each limited to a well-marked district bounded by great rivers. On the north bank of the Amazon there are two species, one in its lower valley extending up to the Rio Negro; and the other in the central part of the valley beyond that river; while to the south of the Amazon there are three, one above the Madeira, one below it, and a third near Para, probably separated from the last by the Tocantins river.

Overlapping areas among the species of a genus is a more common phenomenon, and is almost universal where these species are numerous in the same continent. It is, however, exceedingly irregular, so that we often find one species extending over a considerable portion of the area occupied by the genus and including the entire areas of some of the other species. So little has been done to work out accurately the limits of species that it is very difficult to give examples. One of the best is to be found in the genus Dendrœca, a group of American wood-warblers. These little birds all migrate in the winter into the tropical regions, but in the summer they come north, each having its particular range. Thus, D. dominica comes as far as the middle Eastern States, D. cœrulea keeps west of the Alleghanies, D. discolor comes to Michigan and New England; four other species go farther north in Canada, while several extend to the borders of the Arctic zone.

The Species of Tits as Illustrating Areas of Distribution.—In our own hemisphere the overlapping of allied species may be well illustrated by the various kinds of titmice, constituting the genus Parus, several of which are among our best known English birds. The great titmouse (Parus major) has the widest range of all, extending from the Arctic circle to Algeria, Palestine, and Persia, and from Ireland right across Siberia to the Ochotsk sea, probably following the great northern forest belt. It does not extend into China and Japan, where distinct species are found. Next in extent of range is the coal tit (Parus ater) which inhabits all Europe from the Mediterranean to about 64° N. latitude, in Asia Minor to the Lebanon and Caucasus, and across Siberia to Amoorland and Japan. The marsh tit (Parus palustris) inhabits temperate and south Europe from 61° N. latitude in Norway to Poland and South-west Russia, and in the south from Spain to Asia Minor. Closely allied to this—of which it is probably only a variety or sub-species—is the northern marsh tit (Parus borealis), which overlaps the last in Norway and Sweden, and also in South Russia and the Alps, but extends further north into Lapland and North Russia, and thence probably in a south-easterly direction across Central Asia to North China. Yet another closely-allied species (Parus camtschatkensis) ranges from North-eastern Russia across Northern Siberia to Lake Baikal and to Hakodadi in Japan, thus overlapping Parus borealis in the western portion of its area. Our little favourite, the blue tit (Parus cœruleus) ranges over all Europe from the Arctic circle to the Mediterranean, and on to Asia Minor and Persia, but does not seem to pass beyond the Ural mountains. Its lovely eastern ally the azure tit (Parus cyaneus) overlaps the range of P. cœruleus in Western Europe as far as St. Petersburg and Austria, rarely straggling to Denmark, while it stretches all across Central Asia between the latitudes 35° and 56° N. as far as the Amoor valley. Besides these wide-ranging species there are several others which are more restricted. Parus teneriffæ, a beautiful dark blue form of our blue tit, inhabits North-west Africa and the Canaries; Parus ledouci, closely allied to our coal tit, is found only in Algeria; Parus lugubris, allied to the marsh tit, is confined to South-east Europe and Asia Minor, from Hungary and South Russia to Palestine; and Parus cinctus, another allied form, is confined to the extreme north in Lapland, Finland, and perhaps Northern Russia and Siberia. Another beautiful little bird, the crested titmouse (Parus cristatus) is sometimes placed in a separate genus. It inhabits nearly all Central and South Europe, wherever there are pine forests, from 64° N. latitude to Austria and North Italy, and in the west to Spain and Gibraltar, while in the east it does not pass the Urals and the Caucasus range. Its nearest allies are in the high Himalayas.

These are all the European tits, but there are many others inhabiting Asia, Africa, and North America; so that the genus Parus has a very wide range, in Asia to Ceylon and the Malay Islands, in Africa to the Cape, and in North America to the highlands of Mexico.

The Distribution of the Species of Jays.—Owing to the very wide range of several of the tits, the uncertainty of the specific distinction of others, and the difficulty in many cases of ascertaining their actual distribution, it has not been found practicable to illustrate this genus by means of a map. For this purpose we have chosen the genus Garrulus or the jays, in which the species are less numerous, the specific areas less extensive, and the species generally better defined; while being large and handsome birds they are sure to have been collected, or at least noticed, wherever they occur. There are, so far as yet known, twelve species of true jays, occupying an area extending from Western Europe to Eastern Asia and Japan, and nowhere passing the Arctic circle to the north, or the tropic of Cancer to the south, so that they constitute one of the most typical of the Palæarctic[6 - The Palæarctic region includes temperate Asia and Europe, as will be explained in the next chapter.] genera. The following are the species, beginning with the most westerly and proceeding towards the east. The numbers prefixed to each species correspond to those on the coloured map which forms the frontispiece to this volume.

1. Garrulus glandarius.—The common jay, inhabits the British Isles and all Europe except the extreme north, extending also into North Africa, where it has been observed in many parts of Algeria. It occurs near Constantinople, but apparently not in Asia Minor; and in Russia, up to, but not beyond, the Urals. The jays being woodland birds are not found in open plains or barren uplands, and their distribution is hence by no means uniform within the area they actually occupy.

2. Garrulus cervicalis.—The Algerian jay, is a very distinct species inhabiting a limited area in North Africa, and found in some places along with the common species.

3. Garrulus krynicki.—The black-headed jay, is closely allied to the common species, but quite distinct, inhabiting a comparatively small area in South-eastern Europe, and Western Asia.

4. Garrulus atricapillus.—The Syrian jay, is very closely allied to the last, and inhabits an adjoining area in Syria, Palestine, and Southern Persia.

5. Garrulus hyrcanus.—The Persian jay, is a small species allied to our jay and only known from the Elburz Mountains in the north of Persia.

6. Garrulus brandti.—Brandt's jay, is a very distinct species, having an extensive range across Asia from the Ural Mountains to North China, Mandchuria, and the northern island of Japan, and also crossing the Urals into Russia where it has been found as far west as Kazan in districts where the common jay also occurs.

7. Garrulus lanceolatus.—The black-throated jay, is a very distinct form known only from the North-western Himalayas and Nepal, common about Simla, and extending into Cashmere beyond the range of the next species.

8. Garrulus bispecularis.—The Himalayan jay is also very distinct, having the head coloured like the back, and not striped as in all the western species. It inhabits the Himalayas east of Cashmere, but is more abundant in the western than the eastern division, though according to the Abbé David it reaches Moupin in East Thibet.

9. Garrulus sinensis.—The Chinese jay, is very closely allied to the Himalayan, of which it is sometimes classed as a sub-species. It seems to be found in all the southern mountains of China, from Foochow on the east to Sze-chuen and East Thibet on the west, as it is recorded from Moupin by the Abbé David as well as the Himalayan bird—a tolerable proof that it is a distinct form.

10. Garrulus taivanus.—The Formosan jay is a very close ally of the preceding, confined to the island of Formosa.

11. Garrulus japonicus.—The Japanese jay is nearly allied to our common British species, being somewhat smaller and less brightly coloured, and with black orbits; yet these are the most widely separated species of the genus. According to Mr. Seebohm this species is equally allied to the Chinese and Siberian jays.

In the accompanying map (see frontispiece) we have laid down the distribution of each species so far as it can be ascertained from the works of Sharpe and Dresser for Europe, Jerdon for India, Swinhoe for China, and Mr. Seebohm's recent work for Japan. There is, however, much uncertainty in many places, and gaps have to be filled up conjecturally, while such a large part of Asia is still very imperfectly explored, that considerable modifications may have to be made when the country becomes more accurately known. But though details may be modified we can hardly suppose that the great features of the several specific areas, or their relations to each other will be much affected; and these are what we have chiefly to consider as bearing on the questions here discussed.

The first thing that strikes us on looking at the map, is, the small amount of overlapping of the several areas, and the isolation of many of the species; while the next most striking feature is the manner in which the Asiatic species almost surround a vast area in which no jays are found. The only species with large areas, are the European G. glandarius and the Asiatic G. Brandti. The former has three species overlapping it—in Algeria, in South-eastern and North-eastern Europe respectively. The Syrian jay (No. 4), is not known to occur anywhere with the black-headed jay (No. 3), and perhaps the two areas do not meet. The Persian jay (No. 5), is quite isolated. The Himalayan and Chinese jays (Nos. 7, 8, and 9) form a group which are isolated from the rest of the genus; while the Japanese jay (No. 11), is also completely isolated as regards the European jays to which it is nearly allied. These peculiarities of distribution are no doubt in part dependent on the habits of the jays, which live only in well-wooded districts, among deciduous trees, and are essentially non-migratory in their habits, though sometimes moving southwards in winter. This will explain their absence from the vast desert area of Central Asia, but it will not account for the gap between the North and South Chinese species, nor for the absence of jays from the wooded hills of Turkestan, where Mr. N. A. Severtzoff collected assiduously, obtaining 384 species of birds but no jay. These peculiarities, and the fact that jays are never very abundant anywhere, seem to indicate that the genus is now a decaying one, and that it has at no very distant epoch occupied a larger and more continuous area, such as that of the genus Parus at the present day.

Discontinuous generic Areas.—It is not very easy to find good examples of genera whose species occupy two or more quite disconnected areas, for though such cases may not be rare, we are seldom in a position to mark out the limits of the several species with sufficient accuracy. The best and most remarkable case among European birds is that of the blue magpies, forming the genus Cyanopica. One species (C. cooki) is confined (as already stated) to the wooded and mountainous districts of Spain and Portugal, while the only other species of the genus (C. cyanus) is found far away in North-eastern Asia and Japan, so that the two species are separated by about 5,000 miles of continuous land. Another case is that of the curious little water-moles forming the genus Mygale, one species M. muscovitica, being found only on the banks of the Volga and Don in South-eastern Russia, while the other, M. pyrenaica, is confined to streams on the northern side of the Pyrenees. In tropical America there are four different kinds of bell-birds belonging to the genus Chasmorhynchus, each of which appears to inhabit a restricted area completely separated from the others. The most northerly is C. tricarunculatus of Costa Rica and Veragua, a brown bird with a white head and three long caruncles growing upwards at the base of the beak. Next comes C. variegatus, in Venezuela, a white bird with a brown head and numerous caruncles on the throat, perhaps conterminous with the last; in Guiana, extending to near the mouth of the Rio Negro, we have C. niveus, the bell-bird described by Waterton, which is pure white, with a single long fleshy caruncle at the base of the beak; the last species, C. nudicollis, inhabits South-east Brazil, and is also white, but with black stripes over the eyes, and with a naked throat. These birds are about the size of thrushes, and are all remarkable for their loud, ringing notes, like a bell or a blow on an anvil, as well as for their peculiar colours. They are therefore known to the native Indians wherever they exist, and we may be the more sure that they do not spread over the intervening areas where they have never been found, and where the natives know nothing of them.

A good example of isolated species of a group nearer home, is afforded by the snow-partridges of the genus Tetraogallus. One species inhabits the Caucasus range and nowhere else, keeping to the higher slopes from 6,000 to 11,000 feet above the sea, and accompanying the ibex in its wanderings, as both feed on the same plants. Another has a wider range in Asia Minor and Persia, from the Taurus mountains to the South-east corner of the Caspian Sea; a third species inhabits the Western Himalayas, between the forests and perpetual snow, extending eastwards to Nepal; while a fourth is found on the north side of the mountains in Thibet, and the ranges of these two perhaps overlap; the last species inhabit the Altai mountains, and like the two first appears to be completely separated from all its allies.

There are some few still more extraordinary cases in which the species of one genus are separated in remote continents or islands. The most striking of these is that of the tapirs, forming the genus Tapirus, of which there are two or three species in South America, and one very distinct species in Malacca and Borneo, separated by nearly half the circumference of the globe. Another example among quadrupeds is a peculiar genus of moles named Urotrichus, of which one species inhabits Japan and the other British Columbia. The cuckoo-like honey-guides, forming the genus Indicator, are tolerably abundant in tropical Africa, but there are two outlying species, one in the Eastern Himalaya mountains, the other in Borneo, both very rare, and recently an allied species has been found in the Malay peninsula. The beautiful blue and green thrush-tits forming the genus Cochoa, have two species in the Eastern Himalayas and Eastern China, while the third is confined to Java; the curious genus Eupetes, supposed to be allied to the dippers, has one species in Sumatra and Malacca, while four other species are found two thousand miles distant in New Guinea; lastly, the lovely ground-thrushes of the genus Pitta, range from Hindostan to Australia, while a single species, far removed from all its near allies, inhabits West Africa.

Peculiarities of Generic, and Family Distribution.—The examples now given sufficiently illustrate the mode in which the several species of a genus are distributed. We have next to consider genera as the component parts of families, and families of orders, from the same point of view.

All the phenomena presented by the species of a genus are reproduced by the genera of a family, and often in a more marked degree. Owing, however, to the extreme restriction of genera by modern naturalists, there are not many among the higher animals that have a world-wide distribution. Among the mammalia there is no such thing as a truly cosmopolitan genus. This is owing to the absence of all the higher orders except the mice from Australia, while the genus Mus, which occurs there, is represented by a distinct group, Hesperomys, in America. If, however, we consider the Australian dingo as a native animal we might class the genus Canis as cosmopolite, but the wild dogs of South America are now formed into separate genera by some naturalists. Many genera, however, range over three or more continents, as Felis (the cat genus) absent only from Australia; Ursus (the bear genus) absent from Australia and tropical Africa; Cervus (the deer genus) with nearly the same range; and Sciurus (the squirrel genus) found in all the continents but Australia. Among birds Turdus, the thrush, and Hirundo, the swallow genus, are the only perching birds which are truly cosmopolites; but there are many genera of hawks, owls, wading and swimming birds, which have a world-wide range.

As a great many genera consist of single species there is no lack of cases of great restriction, such as the curious lemur called the "potto," which is found only at Sierra Leone, and forms the genus Perodicticus; the true chinchillas found only in the Andes of Peru and Chili south of 9° S. lat. and between 8,000 and 12,000 feet elevation; several genera of finches each confined to limited portions of the higher Himalayas, the blood-pheasants (Ithaginis) found only above 10,000 feet from Nepal to East Thibet; the bald-headed starling of the Philippine islands, the lyre-birds of East Australia, and a host of others.

It is among the different genera of the same family that we meet with the most striking examples of discontinuity, although these genera are often as unmistakably allied as are the species of a genus; and it is these cases that furnish the most interesting problems to the student of distribution. We must therefore consider them somewhat more fully.

Among mammalia the most remarkable of these divided families is that of the camels, of which one genus Camelus, the true camels, comprising the camel and dromedary, is confined to Asia, while the other Auchenia, comprising the llamas and alpacas, is found only in the high Andes and in the plains of temperate South America. Not only are these two genera separated by the Atlantic and by the greater part of the land of two continents, but one is confined to the Northern and the other to the Southern hemisphere. The next case, though not so well known, is equally remarkable; it is that of the Centetidæ, a family of small insectivorous animals, which are wholly confined to Madagascar and the large West Indian islands Cuba and Hayti, the former containing five genera and the latter a single genus with a species in each island. Here again we have the whole continent of Africa as well as the Atlantic ocean separating allied genera. Two families (or subfamilies) of rat-like animals, Octodontidæ and Echimyidæ, are also divided by the Atlantic. Both are mainly South American, but the former has two genera in North and East Africa, and the latter also two in South and West Africa. Two other families of mammalia, though confined to the Eastern hemisphere, are yet markedly discontinuous. The Tragulidæ are small deer-like animals, known as chevrotains or mouse-deer, abundant in India and the larger Malay islands and forming the genus Tragulus; while another genus, Hyomoschus, is confined to West Africa. The other family is the Simiidæ or anthropoid apes, in which we have the gorilla and chimpanzee confined to West and Central Africa, while the allied orangs are found only in the islands of Sumatra and Borneo, the two groups being separated by a greater space than the Echimyidæ and other rodents of Africa and South America.

Among birds and reptiles we have several families, which, from being found only within the tropics of Asia, Africa, and America, have been termed tropicopolitan groups. The Megalæmidæ or barbets are gaily coloured fruit-eating birds, almost equally abundant in tropical Asia and Africa, but less plentiful in America, where they probably suffer from the competition of the larger sized toucans. The genera of each country are distinct, but all are closely allied, the family being a very natural one. The trogons form a family of very gorgeously coloured and remarkable insect-eating birds very abundant in tropical America, less so in Asia, and with a single genus of two species in Africa.

Among reptiles we have two families of snakes—the Dendrophidæ or tree-snakes, and the Dryiophidæ or green whip-snakes—which are also found in the three tropical regions of Asia, Africa, and America, but in these cases even some of the genera are common to Asia and Africa, or to Africa and America. The lizards forming the family Amphisbænidæ are divided between tropical Africa and America, a few species only occurring in the southern portion of the adjacent temperate regions; while even the peculiarly American family of the iguanas is represented by two genera in Madagascar, and one in the Fiji and Friendly Islands. Passing on to the Amphibians the worm-like Cæciliadæ are tropicopolitan, as are also the toads of the family Engystomatidæ. Insects also furnish some analogous cases, three genera of Cicindelidæ, (Pogonostoma, Ctenostoma, and Peridexia) showing a decided connection between this family in South America and Madagascar; while the beautiful family of diurnal moths, Uraniidæ, is confined to the same two countries. A somewhat similar but better known illustration is afforded by the two genera of ostriches, one confined to Africa and Arabia, the other to the plains of temperate South America.

General features of Overlapping and Discontinuous Areas.—These numerous examples of discontinuous genera and families form an important section of the facts of animal dispersal which any true theory must satisfactorily account for. In greater or less prominence they are to be found all over the world, and in every group of animals, and they grade imperceptibly into those cases of conterminous and overlapping areas which we have seen to prevail in most extensive groups of species, and which are perhaps even more common in those large families which consist of many closely allied genera. A sufficient proof of the overlapping of generic areas is the occurrence of a number of genera of the same family together. Thus in France or Italy about twenty genera of warblers (Sylviadæ) are found, and as each of the thirty-three genera of this family inhabiting temperate Europe and Asia has a different area, a great number must here overlap. So, in most parts of Africa, at least ten or twelve genera of antelopes may be found, and in South America a large proportion of the genera of monkeys of the family Cebidæ occur in many districts; and still more is this the case with the larger bird families, such as the tanagers, the tyrant shrikes, or the tree-creepers, so that there is in all these extensive families no genus whose area does not overlap that of many others. Then among the moderately extensive families we find a few instances of one or two genera isolated from the rest, as the spectacled bear, Tremarctos, found only in Chili, while the remainder of the family extends from Europe and Asia over North America to the Mountains of Mexico, but no further south; the Bovidæ, or hollow-horned ruminants, which have a few isolated genera in the Rocky Mountains and the islands of Sumatra and Celebes; and from these we pass on to the cases of wide separation already given.

Restricted Areas of Families.—As families sometimes consist of single genera and even single species, they often present examples of very restricted range; but what is perhaps more interesting are those cases in which a family contains numerous species and sometimes even several genera, and yet is confined to a narrow area. Such are the golden moles (Chrysochloridæ) consisting of two genera and three species, confined to extratropical South Africa; the hill-tits (Liotrichidæ), a family of numerous genera and species mainly confined to the Himalayas, but with a few straggling species in the Malay countries and the mountains of China; the Pteroptochidæ, large wren-like birds, consisting of eight genera and nineteen species, almost entirely confined to temperate South America and the Andes; and the birds-of-paradise, consisting of nineteen or twenty genera and about thirty-five species, almost all inhabitants of New Guinea and the immediately surrounding islands, while a few, doubtfully belonging to the family, extend to East Australia. Among reptiles the most striking case of restriction is that of the rough-tailed burrowing snakes (Uropeltidæ), the five genera and eighteen species being strictly confined to Ceylon and the southern parts of the Indian Peninsula.

The Distribution of Orders.—When we pass to the larger groups, termed orders, comprising several families, we find comparatively few cases of restriction and many of worldwide distribution; and the families of which they are composed are strictly comparable to the genera of which families are composed, inasmuch as they present examples of overlapping, or conterminous, or isolated areas, though the latter are comparatively rare. Among mammalia the Insectivora offer the best example of an order, several of whose families inhabit areas more or less isolated from the rest; while the Marsupialia have six families in Australia, and one, the opossums, far off in America.

Perhaps, more important is the limitation of some entire orders to certain well-defined portions of the globe. Thus the Proboscidea, comprising the single family and genus of the elephants, and the Hyracoidea, that of the Hyrax or Syrian coney, are confined to parts of Africa and Asia; the Marsupials to Australia and America; and the Monotremata, the lowest of all mammals—comprising the duck-billed Platypus and the spiny Echidna, to Australia and New Guinea. Among birds the Struthiones or ostrich tribe are almost confined to the three Southern continents, South America, Africa and Australia; and among Amphibia the tailed Batrachia—the newts and salamanders—are similarly restricted to the northern hemisphere.

These various facts will receive their explanation in a future chapter.

CHAPTER III

CLASSIFICATION OF THE FACTS OF DISTRIBUTION.—ZOOLOGICAL REGIONS

The Geographical Divisions of the Globe do not correspond to Zoological divisions—The range of British Mammals as indicating a Zoological Region—Range of East Asian and North African Mammals—The Range of British Birds—Range of East Asian Birds—The limits of the Palæarctic Region—Characteristic features of the Palæarctic Region—Definition and characteristic groups of the Ethiopian Region—Of the Oriental Region—Of the Australian Region—Of the Nearctic Region—Of the Neotropical Region—Comparison of Zoological Regions with the Geographical Divisions of the Globe.

Having now obtained some notion of how animals are dispersed over the earth's surface, whether as single species or as collected in those groups termed genera, families, and orders, it will be well, before proceeding further, to understand something of the classification of the facts we have been considering, and some of the simpler conclusions these facts lead to.