Observations on the Diseases of Seamen

The Royal Oak, Prudent, and America, which left England with the Bedford, though they had been afflicted with the scurvy and other complaints soon after arriving in America, had been quite healthy for some time before coming to the West Indies, and were so much so at this period, that, though there were a few sores and slight complaints on their sick lists, there was not a man confined with illness, so as properly to be called sick. The Royal Oak, having been the flag ship of Admiral Arbuthnot, was manned with choice seamen, which is a circumstance generally conducive to health; for these being accustomed to a sea life, are more provident, more handy and methodical in all that relates to diet, cloathing, and cleanliness. The scurvy, which infected her upon first arriving in America, was successfully treated on board by serving to those who were ill of it a mess, composed of soft bread, baked on purpose, and mixed with wine and essence of malt.

The Prudent, though now quite healthy, had been sickly soon after being put into commission in Europe, and upon first arriving in America. She had been uncommonly sickly, when a new ship, upon her first voyage, which was to the East Indies, during the peace. This remarkable degree of sickness was probably owing to a particular experiment that was made in preparing the wood of which she was built. This experiment consisted in soaking the timber for a length of time in a strong pickle, in order to make it less corruptible. The only other ship on which the trial of this was made was the Intrepid; and it has been already mentioned that this was an extremely sickly ship. The effect of it upon the wood was to cause a constant moisture and mouldiness in the orlops and holds. In the Intrepid, the sickness was never conquered till a practice was followed of pumping and bailing her with great care, and putting a fire into the well for six hours every day, by which means the dampness, and the mildew produced by it, were removed and prevented, and the ship thereby rendered healthy.

The two squadrons being united, and consisting of thirty-four ships of the line, proceeded to St. Lucia, where they arrived on the 1st of March.

I received monthly returns as formerly, and the form of them was improved by adding a column for the numbers taken ill of the several diseases in the course of the month. The returns of February are not complete, there being none for the 1st of that month, as we had not then arrived; but as the returns of the 1st of March have relation to the preceding month, a judgement may be formed of the sickness and mortality of February from the following table:

Extract from the Returns of the 1st of March, 1782.

This account is abstracted from the returns of twenty-nine ships of the line, and two frigates.

The diseases and deaths under the head of “Other Complaints,” is much more numerous in this month than usual, which is chiefly owing to the preceding actions with the enemy, and to the prevalence of the small pox. Of the deaths under this head, seventeen were in consequence of wounds, six from small pox, one from a mortification[10 - The mortification in the shoulder, mentioned above, was somewhat singular. It happened to a man in the Yarmouth, who, after being for a week ill of a fever and flux, was one day, early in the morning, seized with a pain in the upper part of the right arm, which immediately began to mortify. He soon after became convulsed, and died the same day about two o’clock.] in the shoulder, and one from consumption.

None of the epidemics affected one part of the squadron more than another, except that the ships last from England had a less proportion of the flux than the rest; and the few cases of this disease that were in these ships arose after their arrival in the climate. The Conqueror and Fame, which were the two most sickly ships, had no complaints but fevers.

The fevers had now begun to take on some of the characteristic symptoms of the climate; the chief of which is a greater abundance of bile. In the Repulse, two men had the yellow colour of the skin, which is so peculiar to the fevers of this climate.

The crew of the Anson caught an infectious fever from a guardship in England; and when the Prothée sailed, there was a fever of the same kind on board; but from the change of climate, the symptoms became milder, and the disease disappeared in both these ships in the course of this month.

The small pox prevailed more at this time in the fleet than I have ever known it to do either before or since, and that both in the squadron from England and in that from North America. There were six cases in the Formidable, all of which did well, though two were of the confluent kind.

Though there needs hardly any additional proof of the extraordinary efficacy of lemon juice in curing the scurvy, yet it may be of service to impress so useful a truth on the mind by mentioning such striking proofs of it as occurred from time to time. The Arrogant spoke with a Portuguese vessel near Madeira, from which some of this fruit was procured, and the only scorbutic man on board happening to have some of the most desperate symptoms, such as putrid gums, contracted hams, the calves of the leg hard and livid, and frequent faintings, a fair opportunity offered for trying its virtues. The man was allowed two of them daily, and was perfectly well in sixteen days, during all which time the ship was at sea, so that it was impossible to ascribe the cure to any other cause.

The fleet remained at St. Lucia from the 1st till the 18th of March, completing the water, provisions and stores, landing the sick at the hospital, and also watching the motions of the enemy, who arrived about the same time at Martinico from the siege of St. Christopher’s. During this time we were reinforced with the Duke, of 90 guns, and the Warrior and Valiant, of 74 guns, from England. On the 18th the whole fleet, except the Invincible, which was detached with a convoy to Jamaica, sailed on a cruise to windward of Martinico, in quest of a French convoy expected from Europe; which having eluded us, and got into their own harbour, the whole fleet returned to St. Lucia on the 30th of March, excepting the Prudent, which was sent to Barbadoes.

We found at St. Lucia the Magnificent, of 74, and the Agamemnon, of 64 guns, which were the last reinforcement of this campaign, making the British fleet on this station amount to forty ships of the line, a much greater force than was ever before employed on foreign service. They were all copper bottomed.

The weather continued fine all this month, yet there was some increase of sickness, owing chiefly to the hardship the men underwent in wooding and watering. In Choc Bay, where the fleet watered, there was at this time a higher surf than was ever remembered, which made the operation of watering (at all times noxious in this climate) uncommonly toilsome and dangerous. It was, indeed, next to impracticable; for many longboats were staved on the beach, by which several men had their limbs broken, and some lost their lives, by being crushed or drowned; but the necessity of the service admitted of no relaxation or delay. There was no increase of wind to account for this surf, so that it was owing either to something in the currents, or to some subterraneous cause; and there had been felt at Barbadoes and St. Lucia, about this time, a slight shock of an earthquake[11 - Earthquakes are frequent in the West Indies, and perhaps proceed from a weaker operation of the same cause that originally produced the islands themselves, which seem all to have been raised from the sea by subterraneous fire. There are evident vestiges of volcanoes in them all, except Barbadoes; but there are other unequivocal marks of this island having been raised from the bottom of the sea; for it is entirely formed of coral, and other sub-marine productions, of which the strata are broken, and the parts set at angles to each other, as might be expected from such a cause. There is, perhaps, at all times in the caverns of the earth, elastic vapour struggling to vent itself, and when near the surface, it may sometimes overcome the incumbent masses of matter, and produce certain convulsions of nature. In the account of the hurricane which I wrote to Dr. Hunter, I gave reasons for believing, from the testimony of the inhabitants, that hurricanes are attended with earthquakes; and if a conjecture might be advanced concerning the cause of this, it might be said, that as the atmosphere is lighter at that time, by several inches of the barometer, the elastic vapour, confined by the weight of the incumbent earth and atmosphere, being less compressed, may exert some sensible effects, producing a sort of explosion.], to which many imputed this extraordinary surf. In other respects, there were fewer causes of sickness than usually occur to a fleet in port in this part of the world; for the air of the road is remarkably pure, and there were fewer temptations and opportunities of intemperance than at the other islands.

The monthly returns of the surgeons were very full and complete; but as it would be tedious to insert at length those of every particular ship, and as the number of ships fluctuated in different months, I shall do no more hereafter than set down the general results from calculation, so as to shew the proportional prevalence of disease and mortality in each month.

Table, shewing the proportional Sickness and Mortality in March

Transcriber’s Keys:

A Proportion of those taken ill in the Course of this Month.

B Proportion of those who died, in relation to the Numbers of the Sick.

The first column is formed by dividing the whole number on board by the number taken ill. The second column is formed by first adding the number ill on board on the first of the month to the number taken ill during the month, subtracting from this sum the number sent to the hospital, and dividing the remainder by the number of deaths.

The number on the sick list of twenty-eight ships of the line, and two frigates, on the first of this month, was eight hundred and forty-five; the number put on the lists in the course of the month was one thousand eight hundred and eighty-four; and the number sent to the hospital in the same time was three hundred and seventy-three; and there died on board thirty-one.

The total mortality this month, in relation to the whole number of men on board, was one in six hundred and seven.

It almost always happens, that ships of war are more or less short of complement, and allowance is made for this in all the calculations; for having had an opportunity of inspecting the weekly accounts delivered to the Admiral, it was always in my power to be informed how many there were short of the legal complement of men in each ship.

It appears, from comparing the Tables of this month with those of the preceding, that there had been a great increase of fevers and fluxes, particularly of the latter. The fevers prevailed chiefly in the ships lately from England, especially the Fame and Conqueror. In the Duke there were a great number ill of fevers; but this ship not having arrived from England till after the first of the month, is not included in the calculation. The fluxes were most prevalent in the ships we found on the station, particularly the Canada, Resolution, and Nymph frigate. The scurvy had increased very little, but prevailed most in the ships we found here. The only ships of the new squadron that had this disease to a considerable degree, were the Conqueror and Nonsuch. The former had indeed a good many ill of it; but the return having been made in an imperfect manner, this ship is not included in the calculation.

But the ships that were by far the most healthy were those that had been the longest from England, the Ajax, Russel, Montague, Royal Oak, and Prudent. There had been formerly a great mortality in all these ships; and it would appear that this uncommon degree of health was owing, in some measure at least, to this circumstance, that the most weakly had been swept off by the different distempers to which they were exposed; so that only the more hardy and robust had survived.

Under the head of “Other Complaints,” a much smaller number were put on the list, and still fewer died, in this than the preceding month. This difference is owing to the number that died of wounds last month.

There died on board, in the course of this month, thirteen of fevers, seven of fluxes, and seven of other complaints, of whom five died of small pox, one of asthma, and one of wounds he received at St. Christopher’s.

In order to show more fully and minutely what are the complaints incident to fleets in this climate, I shall set down a list of the numbers taken ill of the different diseases and accidents during this month, extracted from the returns of twenty-eight ships of the line, and two frigates.

The number of ulcers bears here a smaller proportion to the whole than it does in general to the sum total of the sick list; for being the most tedious of all complaints, they consequently accumulate more than any other. Thus many of the cases now set down as slight accidents, will, in the ensuing month, be in the state of obstinate ulcers.

Most of the diseases of one hot climate resemble those of another, so far as I know; but there is one disease which we hear of as being extremely prevalent all over the East Indies, which is hardly ever met with in the tropical regions of the West. This is the inflammation of the liver, of which I remember to have seen only one well-marked case, and it was that of a gentleman who had been in the East Indies, and had been subject to it there: nor do I recollect more than one, or at most two, cases of this sort out of several thousand cases of various diseases that were reported to me. This is either owing to the greater heat and dryness of the air in the East Indies, or some other peculiarity with which we are not acquainted[12 - Since the publication of the first edition of this work I have been informed that this complaint is not so rare on shore as in the fleet, which may be partly owing to the greater coolness of the air at sea, and partly from the seamen not having been a sufficient length of time in the climate to be affected with this disease, as few of them had been more than two years from England. But as this affection of the liver was very common in the fleets and naval hospitals in the East Indies, it is evident that there is a great difference of the climates in this respect. It is worth remarking, that it sometimes breaks out in the West-India Islands like an epidemic. The complaint, for instance, was very little known in the island of Grenada, till about the year 1785, when it became very frequent in a particular quarter of the island; and the gentleman who sent the description of it to England alledged, that there were the most unequivocal proofs of its being contagious. It was most successfully treated by very copious bloodletting, and in exciting a salivation by mercury. See Dr. Duncan’s Medical Commentaries, Decad. 2, vol. I.].

Every other inflammatory complaint exists more or less, though they are much rarer than in cold and temperate climates. The phthisis pulmonalis is not so common as in cold climates, but proves sooner fatal to most constitutions. There are certain pulmonic complaints, particularly those of the asthmatic kind, to which the climate of the West Indies is remarkably favourable; but those in which there are tubercles and ulceration seem to be hurried faster to a fatal termination. The climates, from the thirtieth to the fortieth degree of latitude, seem to be best suited to consumptive complaints. The rheumatisms that occur in hot climates are mostly of the chronic kind.

CHAP. III

State of Health of the Fleet in April 1782 – Battles on the 9th and 12th – The Fleet very healthy – from the Quality of Provisions – from the Effects of Victory – Advantages of close Action – What Diseases most prevalent – Extraordinary Degree of Health in the Formidable.

This month being interesting, on account of the memorable engagements that happened in it, the remarks shall, for this reason, be somewhat more full and particular.

Three ships of the line having been sent to protect convoys to Jamaica, and one having been sent to protect a convoy to Barbadoes, there remained thirty-six at St. Lucia in the beginning of this month. By the end of the first week their damages were repaired, their water and provisions complete, and the sick in a great measure recovered.

An equal force of the enemy lay over against us at Martinico, the two powers of Britain and France being to make this distant quarter of the world the theatre for trying their strength, and deciding the sovereignty of the seas. In the view of this great event, our commander forwarded the necessary duties of the fleet with such zeal and diligence, and watched the motions of the enemy with such vigilance, that he overtook their grand squadron a few hours after they left their own port, and engaged them two several days, with a success, glorious and complete.

Nothing had been wanting to equip this fleet for the great and decisive exertion it was to make. Every ship, except two, might be said to be healthy, most of them were complete in men, well appointed with officers, and well found in stores and provisions. – Conformable to this was the eagerness, the confidence, and resolution, which led them to success and victory.

After this battle, the whole fleet, with the prizes, bore away for Jamaica, where part of it arrived on the last days of April, but the greater part of it kept the sea, till after the middle of May.

As this month is more than usually interesting, the tables are given at full length, and a column is added for the wounded.

The sum total, of the numbers of the men on board of the thirty-six ships that composed the line of battle on the 12th of April, was 21,608, and the mortality during the month, exclusive of those who were killed or died of wounds, was one in 862.

There was less sickness, and less death, from disease in this month, than any of the former twenty-three months, in which I kept records of the fleet, and less than in any subsequent month, till the fleet got to the coast of America.

To account for this, it is to be observed, that the men had not been exposed to the noxious air of the shore in watering, as in the preceding month: they had received from England a fresh supply of provisions, among which was sour krout, melasses, and essence of malt, all in addition to the ordinary articles of victualling: many of the ships were supplied with wine, in place of rum, and as the weather was all along dry and fine, the men suffered the less from the exposure and want of sleep, which are the necessary consequences of keeping ships clear for battle for several days and nights together.

TABLE V

ABSTRACT of the RETURNS for APRIL, 1782

Transcriber's Keys:

F Sick on board on the 1st of the Month.

M Put on the List during the Month.

D Dead.

H Sent to the Hospital.