Notes and Queries, Number 23, April 6, 1850

As regards the cipher, the difficulty only commenced with writing numbers in the new symbology. With persons accustomed to the use of this instrument, there is no doubt that the mode of obviating the difficulty of "keeping the place," would suggest itself at once. In this instrument an empty hole (without its peg) signified "none of this denomination." What then more simple than to make the outline of the empty hole which occupied the "local position" of any denomination, when none of that precise denomination occurred in the number itself? Under this view the process at least becomes simple and natural; and as the early merchants contributed so largely to the improvement of our arithmetical processes, such a conclusion is wholly divested of improbability on any other ground. The circle would then naturally become, as it certainly has practically become, the most appropriate symbol of nothingness.

As regards the term cipher or zero (which are so obviously the same as to need no remark), it is admitted on all hands to be derived from one or other of the Semitic languages, the Hebrew or the Arabic. It is customery with the mathematical historians to refer it to the Arabic, they being in general more conversant with it than with the Hebrew. The Arabic being a smaller hand than the Hebrew, a dot was used instead of the circle for marking the "place" at which the hiatus of any "denomination" occurred. If we obtained our cipher from this, it would be made hollow (a mere ceinture, girdle, or ring) to save the trouble of making a dot sufficiently large to correspond in magnitude with our other numerals as we write them. Either is alike possible—probability must be sought, for either over the other, from a slightly different source.

The root-words in Hebrew and in Arabic are precisely the same (ts-ph-r), though in the two languages, and at different ages of the same language, they might have been vowelised differently. In some shape or other, this name is used in all countries that have derived their arithmetic from mediæval Italy, or from the Saracens. It is with some cipher, with others chiffre, and with all zero. The word is certainly no more Italian than it is French or English. Be it remembered, too, that ezor (quoted at p. 268.), as a girdle, is radically the same word, somewhat mutilated. The cardinal meaning of the word (denuded of the conventional accretions of signification, which peculiar applications of it adds to the cardinal meaning) appears to be emptiness, hollowness, nothingness. It may be further remarked, that in the fine Chartres MS. of Boetius, described by Chasles, the 0 is called sipos:—the same name, he remarks, that Graves found in use in the East. The modern Turks call the 0, tsifra.

It is curious enough that in all languages, the term ciphering is popularly used to denote all arithmetical operations whatever. Our schoolboys do their "ciphering," and write carefully in their "ciphering-books." This all seems to point to the art of dispensing with the use of the abacus or counting table.

    T.S.D.

Shooter's Hill, March 5.

Arabic Numerals.—I had replied to "E.V." (No. 15. p. 230.), when I saw by your "Notice to Correspondents," that the question was answered. I therefore waited the publication of the replies, which I find do not embrace any one of the points to which I would call the attention of "E.V."—Diophantus of Alexandria, who flourished about 150 years after Christ, and who wrote thirteen books of algebra or arithmetic in the Greek language, is generally supposed to be the oldest writer on the subject that has come down to our time; but it was not from him that we received the knowledge of algebra in Europe. It appears certain that the first knowledge of this science in England was from Italy or Spain, after the Moors settled in the latter country; and the Arabians and Persians appear to have derived their arithmetical method of computing by ten characters from the Indians: who, in their turn, have most probably borrowed from the Chinese, and improved on their method by the adoption of a zero, which was one of the most important improvements effected by the Hindoos. In China, the words ancient and modern are almost synonymous; their usages and customs being so unchangeable, as appears by their instrument of computation, the swanpan, which is still used in all their calculations. The Oriental scholar will find much curious and interesting information connected with this subject in the Sanscrit Vija Ganita and Lilivati of Bhaskara Acharya: the former was translated into Persian at Agra, or Delhi, in 1634, and the latter by Fyzee in 1587; but there are also English translations, all of which are in the library of the Royal Asiatic Society. The Khalasah-ul-Hisah is another work of repute in India. Mr. Strachey wrote and printed in India, for the Asiatic Researches, a valuable paper, which contains most conclusive evidence of the Indian (if not Chinese) origin of our numerals. See also Astronomie Indienne, of M. Bailly; 2d vol. Asiatic Researches, "On the Astronomical Computations of the Hindoos," by Saml. Davis; "Two Dissertations on Indian Astronomy and Trigonometry," by Professor Playfair, in the 2d and 4th vols. of the Edinburgh Philosophical Transactions. And many others might be referred to; but all tending to prove that our numbers came originally from China and India, through Persia, Arabia, Africa, Spain, and Italy, by gradual and successive changes in form, several of them still retaining a close resemblance to the ancient and modern Sanscrit, Chinese, Arabic, Persian, and Hindoo numerals.

    Henry Wilkinson.

REPLIES TO MINOR QUERIES

I send you a few Notes on Queries scattered through some of the later numbers of your very valuable publication:

Anonymous Ravennas.—In the library of the Royal Geographical Society, I believe there is a copy of an 8vo. edition of that cosmography.

Selago.—This plant, I should think it probable, is the Lycopodium clavatum of modern botanists; the seeds of which, when ripe, and when the plant is struck, rise like smoke ("fumum" of Pliny), and may have been supposed, from their remarkable inflammability when dashed into a flame, igniting with a sudden flash, to have possessed wonderful virtues. The species known as Lycopodium selago is rare in comparison to the other.

Portugal.—In the library of the Geographical Society are some of the more recent works published in Lisbon on the topography of that country, but they are generally very meagre and unsatisfactory. In a periodical published in Lisbon in numbers, on the plan of the Penny Magazine, there is a good deal of information, with engravings, regarding many places of interest in Portugal. I think it is called The Album, but I am sorry I have not at present the power of sending you more correct particulars concerning it. It is in 4to.

Portugal is a country that is so little travelled in either by natives or foreigners, that information regarding places in the interior is not easily obtained; and facilities for travelling, as well as accommodation for travellers, is of a very limited description.

Sir Roger de Coverley.—In one of your early numbers was a query on this subject, which I do not think has been yet answered. I have a MS. account of the family of Calverley, of Calverley, in Yorkshire, an autograph of Ralph Thoresby in the year 1717, in which occurs the following passage:—

"Roger, so named from the Archbishop" (of York), "was a person of renowned hospitality, since, at this day, the obsolete known tune of Roger a Calverley is referred to him, who, according to the custom of those times, kept his minstrells, from that their office named harpers, which became a family and possessed lands till late years in and about Calverley, called to this day Harpersroids and Harper's Spring.... He was a knight, and lived in the time of K. Richard 1st. His seal, appended to one of his charters, is large, with a chevalier on horseback."

    W. CALVERLEY TREVELYAN.

DERIVATIONS OF "NEWS."

It is not declared with what motive "Mr. GUTCH" (No. 17. p. 270.) has laid before the readers of "NOTES AND QUERIES" the alleged derivation of N.E.W.S.

It must therefore be supposed, that his object was to have its justness and probability commented upon; and it is quite time that they should be so, since the derivation in question has of late become quite a favourite authoritative dictum with etymology compilers. Thus it may be found, in the very words and form adopted by your correspondent, in Haydn's Dictionary of Dates, and in other authorities of equal weight.

This sort of initial-letter derivation was probably brought into fashion in England by the alleged origin of "Cabal," or, perhaps, by the many guesses at the much disputed word "Æra." I shall take the liberty of quoting a few sentences with reference to such etymologies, as a class, which I find in an unpublished manuscript upon a kindred subject.

"Besides, such a splitting up of a word of significant and perfect meaning in itself is always a bad and suspicious mode of derivation.

"It is generally an after-thought, suggested by some fortuitous or fancied coincidence, that appropriateness of which is by no means a sufficient proof of probability.

"Of this there can scarcely be a better example than the English word 'news,' which, notwithstanding the felicity of its supposed derivation from the four cardinal points, must, nevertheless, so long as the corresponding words 'nova,' 'nouvelles,' &c. exist, be consigned to its more sober and common-place origin in the adjective 'new.'"

To this it must be added that the ancient orthography of the word newes, completely upsets the derivation Mr. Gutch has brought before your readers. Hone quotes from "one Burton, printed in 1614: 'if any one read now-a-days, it is a play-book, or a pamphlet of newes."

I had been in two minds whether or not to send this communication, when the scale is completely turned by the apropos occurrence of a corroboration of this latter objection in "NOTES AND QUERIES" of this day. Mr. Rimbault mentions (at p. 277.), "a rare black letter volume entitled Newes from Scotland, 1591."

Here is one more proof of the usefulness of your publication, that I am thus enabled to strengthen the illustration of a totally different subject by the incidental authority of a fellow correspondent.

    A.E.B.

Leeds, March, 1850.

REPLIES TO MINOR QUERIES

Swot is, as the querist supposes, a military cant term, and a sufficiently vulgar one too. It originated at the great slang-manufactory for the army, the Royal Military College, Sandhurst. You may depend upon the following account of it, which I had many years ago from the late Thomas Leybourne, F.R.S., Senior Professor of Mathematics in that college.

One of the Professors, Dr. William Wallace, in addition to his being a Scotchman, had a bald head, and an exceedingly "broad Scotch" accent, besides a not very delicate discrimination in the choice of his English terms relating to social life. It happened on one hot summer's day, nearly half a century ago, that he had been teaching a class, and had worked himself into a considerable effusion from the skin. He took out his handkerchief, rubbed his head and forehead violently, and exclaimed in his Perthshire dialect,—"It maks one swot." This was a God-send to the "gentlemen cadets," wishing to achieve a notoriety as wits and slangsters; and mathematics generally ever after became swot, and mathematicians swots. I have often heard it said:—"I never could do swot well, Sir;" and "these dull fellows, the swots, can talk of nothing but triangles and equations."

I should have thought that the sheer disgustingness of the idea would have shut the word out of the vocabularies of English gentlemen. It remains nevertheless a standard term in the vocabulary of an English soldier. It is well, at all events, that future ages should know its etymology.

    T.S.D.

Pokership, (antè, pp. 185. 218. 269. 282. 323, 324.)—I am sorry to see that no progress has yet been made towards a satisfactory explanation of this office. I was in hopes that something better than mere conjecture would have been supplied from the peculiar facilities of "T.R.F." "W.H.C." (p. 323.) has done little more than refer to the same instruments as had been already adverted to by me in p. 269., with the new reading of poulterer for poker! With repect to "T.R.F.'s" conjecture, I should be more ready to accept it if he could produce a single example of the word pawker, in the sense of a hog-warden. The quotation from the Pipe-roll of John is founded on a mistake. The entry occurs in other previous rolls, and is there clearly explained to refer to the porter of Hereford Castle. Thus, in Pipe 2 Hen. II. and 3 Hen. II. we have, under Hereford,

"In liberatione portarii castelli … 30s. 5d."

In Pipe 1 Ric. I. we have,

"In liberatione constitutâ portarii de Hereford, 30s. 5d."

Again, in Pipe 3 Joh.

"In liberatione constitutâ portario de Hereford, 30s. 5d."

A similar entry is to be found in other rolls, as well printed as inedited. I could indulge some other criticisms on the communication of your correspondent in Spring Gardens, but I prefer encouraging him to make further inquiries, and to produce from the records in his custody some more satisfactory solution of the difficulty. In the meantime, let me refer to a Survey of Wrigmore Castle in the Lansdowne Collection, No. 40. fo. 82. The surveyor there reports, that the paling, rails, &c. of the park are much decayed in many and sundry places, and he estimates the repairs, with allowance of timber from the wood there, "by good surveye and oversight of the poker and other officers of the said parke," at 4l. The date of the survey is 13 May, 1584.

Comparing this notice of the office with the receiver's accounts tempore Hen. VII. and Hen. VIII. (antè, p. 269.), in which the officer is called "pocarius omnium boscorum," I cannot doubt that his duty, or at least one of his duties, was that of woodward, and that, as such, he assigned timber for repair of the premises. How he came by his local title and style of poker is a mystery on which we have all hitherto failed to throw any light.

    E.S.

Vox Populi Vox Dei,—about the origin of which saying "QUÆSITOR" asks (No. 21. p. 321.),—were the words chosen by the Archbishop of Canterbury, Simon Mepham, as his text for the sermon which he preached when Edward III. was called to the throne, from which the nation had pulled down his father, Edward II. This we learn from Walsingham, who says:

"Archiepiscopus verò Cantuariæ præsenti consensit electioni, ut omnes prælati et archiepiscopus quidem assumpto themate, Vox populi Vox Dei, sermonem fecit populo, exhortans omnes ut apud regem regum intercederent pro electo."—Tho. Walsingham, Hist. Angl. ed. Camden, p. 126.

    DANIEL ROCK.

A living Dog better than a dead Lion.—I no not know whether your correspondent (No. 22. p. 352.) ever goes to church; but if he is not prevented by rain next St. Swithin's day, he will learn who was the author of this proverb. It will be a good thing, if your work should sometimes lead your readers to search the Scriptures, and give them credit for wisdom that has flowed from them so long, and far, and wide, that its source is forgotten; but this is not the place for a sermon, and I now only add, "here endeth the first lesson" from

    ECCLESIASTES.

["J.E.," "D.D.," and other correspondents, have also replied to this Query by references to Eccl. ix. 4.]

Curious Monumental Brass (No. 16. p. 247.)—If "RAHERE" will turn to Mr. Boutell's Monumental Brasses and Slabs, p. 148., he will there find a description as well as an engraving of what, from his account, I doubt not he will discover to be the identical fragment to which he refers. A foot legend, and what remains of a border inscription, is added to it. In the above work, pp. 147 to 155, and in the Oxford Architectural Society's Manual for the Study of Brasses, p. 15., "RAHERE" will find an account and references to numerous examples of palimpsest brasses, to which class the one in question belongs.